Propagator cells and methods for propagating phage, in particular for delivering crispr-cas components via probiotic organisms

ABSTRACT

The invention provides propagator cells and methods for propagating phage and transduction particles.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a national stage application under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/EP2018/071454, filed internationally on Aug. 8, 2018, which claims priority benefit to United Kingdom Application No. 1712733.3, filed Aug. 8, 2017, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND

Bacteriophages (phages) are a phylum of viruses that infect bacteria, and are distinct from the animal and plant viruses. Phages can have either a “lytic” life cycle, a “lysogenic” life cycle that can potentially become lytic, or a “non-lytic” life cycle. Phages replicating through the lytic cycle cause lysis of the host target bacterial cell as a normal part of their life cycles. Phages replicating through the lysogenic cycles are called temperate phages, and can either replicate by means of the lytic life cycle and cause lysis of the host bacterium, or they can incorporate their DNA into the host bacterial DNA and become noninfectious prophages. Bacteriophages are bacterial viruses that only infect and multiply within their specific bacterial hosts. Host specificity is generally found at strain level, species level, or, more rarely, at genus level. This specificity allows for directed targeting of dangerous bacteria using phages. The adsorption of bacteriophages onto host cells is, in all but a few rare cases, a sine qua non condition for the onset of the infection process.

The natural capability of phages to infect and kill bacteria, together with the specificity of the phage-bacterial interactions, is the basic phenomena on which the concept of phage therapy is built. Therefore, phages that possess lytic life cycle are suitable candidates for phage therapy. The use of phage in food production has recently become an option for the food industry as a novel method for biocontrol of unwanted pathogens, enhancing the safety of especially fresh and ready-to-eat food products.

International Patent Application No. WO 00/69269 discloses the use of certain phage strain for treating infections caused by Vancomycin-sensitive as well as resistant strains of Enterococcus faecium, and International Patent Application No. WO 01/93904 discloses the use of bacteriophage, alone or in combination with other anti-microbial means, for preventing or treating gastrointestinal diseases associated with the species of the genus Clostridium.

US Patent Application No. 2001/0026795 describes methods for producing bacteriophage modified to delay inactivation by the host defense system, and thus increasing the time period in which the phage is active in killing the bacteria.

US Patent Application No. 2002/0001590 discloses the use of phage therapy against multi-drug resistant bacteria, specifically methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and International Patent Application No. WO 02/07742 discloses the development of bacteriophage having multiple host range.

The use of phage therapy for the treatment of specific bacterial-infectious disease is disclosed, for example, in US Patent Application Nos. 2002/0044922; 2002/0058027 and International Patent Application No. WO 01/93904.

However, commercial scale production of bacteriophage compositions for therapeutic use is still limited. In current techniques, the titer of the phage composition is low, usually in the range of 10⁹-10¹¹pfu/ml on a laboratory scale, and 10⁷-10⁹ on a commercial scale, whereas the titer typically required for therapeutic use is still limited. In current techniques, the titer of the phage composition is low, usually in the range of 10⁹-10¹¹pfu/ml on a laboratory scale, and 10⁷-10⁹on a commercial scale, whereas the titer typically required for phage therapy is 10¹² pfu/ml. Additionally, to reach the desirable titer, very large volumes of liquid are required.

US20160333348 describes the use of CRISPR/Cas systems delivered to host target bacterial cells using phage as vectors. In principle, phage can be grown at volume in the cognate host cell using standard bacterial culture techniques and equipment. Growth of such phage or lytic phage in the target host cells may, however, be hampered by host cell killing by the resident phage by lysis and/or by CRISPR/Cas targeting of host DNA or by any other anti-host mechanism or agent encoded by the phage nucleic acid and which is active in host cells.

As bacteriophage use in industrial application grows there is a need for commercial quantities of identified bacteriophage. Therefore, there is a need for a method for production of phage that provides good yield titer and/or reduces manufacturing volume.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides a solution by providing propagator cells for propagating phage. To this end, the invention provides:

In a First Configuration

A method of producing a population of phage, wherein the phage are of a first type capable of infecting cells of a first bacterial species or strain (host cells) by binding a cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said species or strain, the method comprising

-   -   (a) Providing a population of second cells comprising the         receptor on the surface thereof, wherein the second cells are of         a second species or strain, wherein the second species or strain         is different from the first species or strain;     -   (b) Infecting the second cells with phage of said first type;     -   (c) Propagating the phage in the second cells, thereby producing         the population of phage; and     -   (d) Optionally isolating phage of said population.

In a Second Configuration

A cell (propagator cell) for propagating phage, wherein the phage are of a first type capable of infecting cells of a first bacterial species or strain (host cells) by binding a cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said species or strain, the propagator cell comprising the receptor on the surface thereof, wherein the propagator cell is of a second species or strain, wherein the second species or strain is different from the first species or strain, whereby the propagator cell is capable of being infected by phage of said first type for propagation of phage therein.

In a Third Configuration

A population of propagator cells according to the invention, optionally comprised in a fermentation vessel for culturing the propagator cells and propagating phage of said first type.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. A bacterial production strain (1) was engineered to express a receptor (2) recognized by a helper phage (line X) while non-receptor containing cells (line Y) served as control. Both lines were then transformed with a CGV and infected with a helper phage to produce CGC-PLP (3). Only in line X harbouring the helper phage receptor, CGV-PLP was produced (4) that could be used to deliver DNA to a target cell population expressing the phage receptor

FIG. 2. Delivery of CGV to target cells ATCC43888 (obtained from ATCC) or EMG-2 (obtained from Coli Genetic Stock Center, CGSC) both expressing the receptor recognized by the CGV-PLP. Lysates used for the infection was produced on production strains harboring the receptor for the helper phage (filled bars) or the control strain with no receptor (open bars). Only the production strain with the receptor where the helper phage was able to infect and produce CGV-PLP was able to produce a CGV-PLP lysate capable of infecting the target cell population.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention recognises the advantage of artificially altering receptors expressed by bacterial cells (or selecting cells according to the profile of receptors naturally expressed), for example in the use of cells that can be cultured at scale and are useful for propagating and growing up useful phage populations at scale (eg, commercial scale). Such phage, for example, may encode a HM-crRNA or gRNA as described in US20160333348, which phage are useful for killing host bacterial cells comprised by humans, animals, plants, foodstuffs, beverages, cosmetics, environments (eg, soil, waterway, water reservoir or oil recovery environments), such as those applications described in US20160333348, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

Proteinaceous receptors are mainly outer membrane proteins; sugar moieties include those that compose the cell wall, pellicles, teichoic and LTA. The receptor of the invention is, for, example selected from any of these.

Bacteriophage adsorption initiates the infection process. Through a series of interactions between binding proteins of the bacteriophage (phage) and receptors on the bacterial cell surface, the virus recognizes a potentially sensitive host and then positions itself for DNA ejection. Phage adsorption is thus not only a crucial step in the infection process, but also represents the initial point of contact between virus and host and dictates host range specificity.

Bacteriophage adsorption generally consists of three steps: initial contact, reversible binding and irreversible attachment (Duckworth 1987). The first step involves random collisions between phage and host caused by Brownian motion, dispersion, diffusion or flow (Kokjohn and Miller 1992). In the reversible step, binding to bacterial surface components is not definitive and the phage can desorb from the host. This process, firstly identified by Garen and Puck (1951) through experimental observations of phage detachment after elution, may serve to keep the phage close to the cell surface as it searches for a specific receptor (Kokjohn and Miller 1992). The specific connection between bacterial receptor and phage-binding domains is sometimes mediated by an enzymatic cleavage. This step triggers conformational rearrangements in other phage molecules that allow the insertion of the genetic material into the host (for further details on the mechanism of phage genome ejection, see the review by Molineux and Panja (2013)).

Numerous review studies have highlighted the extensive range of host-associated receptors (proteins, sugars and cell surface structures) that bacteriophages target during adsorption (Lindberg 1977; Schwartz 1980; Wright, McConnell and Kanegasaki 1980; Heller 1992; Frost 1993; Henning and Hashemolhosseini 1994; Vinga et al. 2006; Rakhuba et al. 2010; Chaturongakul and Ounjai 2014). The nature and location of the host cell receptors recognised by bacteriophages varies greatly depending on the phage and host. They range from peptide sequences to polysaccharide moieties. In fact, bacteriophages have been shown to bind to receptors located in the walls of both Gram-positive (Xia et al. 2011) and Gram-negative bacteria (Marti et al. 2013), in bacterial capsules or slime layers (Fehmel et al. 1975), and in appendages [e.g. pili (Guerrero-Ferreira et al. 2011) and flagella (Shin et al. 2012)]. This diversity in receptors and structures involved is a testament to the multiplicity of mechanisms developed by phages and hosts to overcome the evolutionary strategies adopted by their counterparts. It is not unexpected to encounter so many possibilities considering the diversity and staggering amount of phages estimated to populate the different environments of the planet (Clokie et al. 2011). Nevertheless, in all cases, adsorption has so far been shown to involve either constituents of the bacterial cell wall or protruding structures. In an embodiment, therefore, a receptor in the present invention can be any such receptor mentioned in this paragraph or elsewhere in this disclosure.

Optionally, the receptor comprises lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a heptose moiety, the host's glucosylated cell wall teichoic acid (WTA), YueB, or a receptor recognized by a tail fiber protein of the phage or gp21 of the phage.

Receptors in the Cell Wall of Gram-Positive Bacteria

Peptidoglycan, or murein, is an important component of the bacterial cell wall and is often involved in bacteriophage adsorption. It is a polymer composed of multiple units of amino acids and sugar derivatives—N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid. These sugar constituents are connected through glycosidic bonds, forming glycan tetrapeptide sheets that are joined together through the cross-linking of amino acids. The cross-linking occurs through peptide bonds between diaminopimelic acid (an amino acid analog) and D-alanine, or through short peptide interbridges. These interbridges are more numerous in Gram-positive bacteria, leading to their characteristically thicker cell walls.

Another main component of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria that can be involved in phage adsorption is teichoic acid—polysaccharides composed of glycerol phosphate or ribitol phosphate and amino acids. They are bonded to the muramic acid of peptidoglycans. When teichoic acids are bonded to the lipids of the plasma membrane, they are called lipoteichoic acids (LTA). Further details of the composition of cell walls of bacteria can be found in Tortora, Funke and Case (2007), Willey, Sherwood and Woolverton (2008), Pommerville (2010) and Madigan et al. (2012).

The majority of the receptors so far identified are associated either with peptidoglycan or teichoic acid structures (Table 1). Out of 30 phages targeting Gram-positive bacteria reported in Table 1, only 10 utilize other structures for adsorption. Among these 10 phages, 9 display interactions with residues of either teichoic acid (phage SPP1) or peptidoglycan (phages 5, 13, c2, h, ml 3, kh, L and p2) for reversible binding. This highlights the important role these structures may play in the adsorption of phage to Gram-positive bacteria.

Optionally, the receptor of the invention is peptidoglycan, murein, teichoic acid or lipoteichoic acid (LTA). Optionally, the phage is a phage of a family listed in Table 1 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 1 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 1). Optionally, the phage is a phage listed in Table 1 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 1 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 1). In an embodiment, the host and second cells are gram-positive cells. Optionally the host and/or second cells are of a species or strain listed in Table 1 (where the host and second cell species or strains are different). Preferably when the host is a gram-positive bacteria, the receptor is a peptidoglycan. Alternatively, preferably when the host is a gram-positive bacteria, the receptor is a teichoic acid.

TABLE 1 Phages Family Main host Recetpor(s) References γ Siphoviridae Bacillus anthracis Membrane surface-anchored protein Davison et al. (2005) gamma phage receptor (GamR) SPP1 Siphoviridae Bacillus subtilis Glucosyl residues of poly(glycerophosphate) São-José, Baptista on WTA for reversible binding and and Santos (2004), membrane protein YueB for Baptista, Santos irreversible binding and São-José (2008) ϕ29 Podoviridae Bacillus subtilis Cell WTA (primary receptor) Xiang et al. (2009) Bam35 Tectiviridae Bacillus thuringiensis N-acetyl-muramic acid (MurNAc) of Gaidelyte et al. (2006) peptidoglycan in the cell wall LL-H Siphoviridae Lactobacillus delbrueckii Glucose moiety of LTA for reversible Munsch-Alatossava adsorption and negatively charged and Alatossava (2013) glycerol phosphate group of the LTA for irreversible binding B1 Siphoviridae Lactobacillus plantarum Galactose component of the Douglas and Wolin (1971) wall polysaccharide B2 Siphoviridae Lactobacillus plantarum Glucose substituents in teichoic acid Douglas and Wolin (1971) 513c2hml3khL Siphoviridae Lactococcus lactis Rhamnose^(a) moieties in Monteville, Ardestani the cell wall peptidoglycan for reversible and Geller (1994) binding and membrane phage infection protein (PIP) for irreversible binding ϕLC3TP901ermTP901-1 Siphoviridae Lactococcus lactis Cell wall polysaccharides Ainsworth, Sadovskaya and Vinogradov (2014) p2 Siphoviridae Lactococcus lactis Cell wall saccharides for reversible Bebeacua et al. (2013) attachment and pellicle^(b)phosphohexasaccharide motifs for irreversible adsorption A511 Myoviridae Listeria monocytogenes Peptidoglycan (murein) Wendlinger, Loessner and Scherer (1996) A118 Siphoviridae Listeria monocytogenes Glucosaminyl and rhamnosyl components of Wendlinger, Loessner ribitol teichoic acid and Scherer (1996) A500 Siphoviridae Listeria monocytogenes Glucosaminyl residues in teichoic acid Wendlinger, Loessner and Scherer (1996) ϕ812ϕK Myoviridae Staphylococcus aureus Anionic backbone of WTA Xia et al. (2011) 52A Siphoviridae Staphylococcus aureus O-acetyl group from the 6-position of muramic Shaw and Chatterjee (1971) acid residues in murein Wϕ13ϕ47ϕ77ϕSa2m Siphoviridae Staphylococcus aureus N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) Xia et al. (2011) glycoepitope on WTA ϕSLT Siphoviridae Staphylococcus aureus Poly(glycerophosphate) moiety of LTA Kaneko et al. (2009) ^(a)Monteville, Ardestani and Geller (1994) noted that since phages can also bind to glucose and galactose moieties in the cell wall, these might, to a lesser extent, be involved in the adsorption mechanism; ^(b)Pellicle is a protective polysaccharide layer that covers the cell surface of Lactococcus lactis(Chapot-Chartier et al. 2010).

RECEPTORS IN THE CELL WALL OF GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA

In Gram-negative bacteria, the peptidoglycan layer is relatively thin and is located inward of the outer membrane, the major component of the cell wall. These two layers are connected by Braun's lipoproteins. The outer membrane is a sophisticated structure composed of a lipid bilayer ornamented with proteins, polysaccharides and lipids; the latter two molecules form the LPS layer. LPSs are complexes that consist of three parts: lipid A, the core polysaccharide and the O-polysaccharide. Lipid A is, in general, composed of fatty acids attached to glucosamine phosphate disaccharides. The core polysaccharide is connected to the lipid A through a ketodeoxyoctonate linker. The core polysaccharide and the O-polysaccharide (O-chain or O-antigen) contain several units of sugar residues extending outward to the outer membrane. Cells that contain all three components of the LPS are denominated as smooth (S) type and those that lack the O-polysaccharide portion are distinguished as rough (R) type. In general, the saccharides composing the O-antigen are highly variable and those of the core polysaccharide are more conserved among species. Because of this, phages specific to only S-type strains tend to target the O-polysaccharide and, thus, have generally a narrower host range when compared to those able to adsorb to R-type cells (Rakhuba et al. 2010).

Table 2(a) compiles Gram-negative bacterial receptors located in the cell wall that interact with phage receptor-binding proteins (RBPs). Interestingly, in coliphages there is no preference for proteinaceous or polysaccharide receptors: some phages adsorb on cell wall proteins, some on sugar moieties and others require both structures for adsorption. In the case of Salmonella phages, the picture is not so different: some use proteins, some sugar moieties and some both types of receptors. On the other hand, Pseudomonas phages commonly adsorb onto polysaccharide receptors. Although definitive conclusions cannot be drawn from such a small sample size, it should be noted that Pseudomonas can have two LPS moieties, a short chain LPS named A band and a longer B-band LPS (Beveridge and Graham 1991).

Optionally, the receptor is a host cell wall protein. Optionally, the receptor is a saccharide. Optionally, the receptor comprises O-antigen, LPS lipid A or LPS core polysaccharide. In an example, the receptor is smooth LPS or rough LPS. Optionally, the host cells are S-type bacteria and the receptor comprises O-antigen of the host. Optionally, the host cells are R-type bacteria and the receptor comprises LPS lipid A of the host.

Optionally, the receptor is a host cell wall protein. Optionally, the receptor is a saccharide. Optionally, the receptor comprises O-antigen, LPS lipid A or LPS core polysaccharide. In an example, the receptor is smooth LPS or rough LPS. Optionally, the host cells are S-type bacteria and the receptor comprises O-antigen of the host. Optionally, the host cells are R-type bacteria and the receptor comprises LPS lipid A of the host.

In an example, the host is E coli and the phage are coliphage, wherein the receptor is a polysaccharide receptor and/or a host cell wall protein receptor. In an example, the second cells are engineered to express E coli polysaccharide receptor and/or an E coli cell wall protein receptor, wherein the E coli is optionally of the same strain as the host cells.

In an example, the host is Salmonella, wherein the receptor is a polysaccharide receptor and/or a host cell wall protein receptor. In an example, the second cells are engineered to express Salmonella polysaccharide receptor and/or a Salmonella cell wall protein receptor, wherein the Salmonella is optionally of the same strain as the host cells.

In an example, the host is Pseudomonas, wherein the receptor is a polysaccharide receptor. In an example, the second cells are engineered to express Pseudomonas polysaccharide receptor, wherein the Psendomonas is optionally of the same strain as the host cells.

Optionally, the phage is a phage of a family listed in Table 2 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 2 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 2). Optionally, the phage is a phage listed in Table 2 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 2 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 2).

In an embodiment, the host and second cells are gram-negative cells. Preferably, the second cells are E coli cells. Optionally the host and/or second cells are of a species or strain listed in Table 2 (where the host and second cell species or strains are different).

In an example, the host is E coli and the phage are coliphage, wherein the receptor is a polysaccharide receptor and/or a host cell wall protein receptor. In an example, the second cells are engineered to express E coli polysaccharide receptor and/or an E coli cell wall protein receptor, wherein the E coli is optionally of the same strain as the host cells.

In an example, the host is Salmonella, wherein the receptor is a polysaccharide receptor and/or a host cell wall protein receptor. In an example, the second cells are engineered to express Salmonella polysaccharide receptor and/or a Salmonella cell wall protein receptor, wherein the Salmonella is optionally of the same strain as the host cells.

In an example, the host is Pseudomonas, wherein the receptor is a polysaccharide receptor. In an example, the second cells are engineered to express Pseudomonas polysaccharide receptor, wherein the Pseudomonas is optionally of the same strain as the host cells.

Optionally, the phage is a phage of a family listed in Table 2 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 2 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 2). Optionally, the phage is a phage listed in Table 2 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 2 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 2).

In an embodiment, the host and second cells are gram-negative cells. Preferably, the second cells are E coli cells. Optionally the host and/or second cells are of a species or strain listed in Table 2 (where the host and second cell species or strains are different).

Table 2(b) reports cases where phages not only adsorb onto bacterial surfaces but also enzymatically degrade the sugar moieties in the O-chain structure. It should be noted that all these phages belong to the Podoviridae family.

TABLE 2 Receptors in the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria. Host names are ordered alphabetically. Phages Family Main host Receptor(s) References (a) Receptors that bind to RBP of phages ϕCr30 Myoviridae Caulobacter crescentus Paracrystalline surface Edwards and Smit (1991) (S) layer protein 434 Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Protein Ib (OmpC) Hantke (1978) BF23 Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Protein BtuB (vitamin Bradbeer, Woodrow and B₁₂ receptor) Khalifah (1976) K3 Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein d or 3A (OmpA) with LPS Skurray, Hancock and Reeves (1974); Manning and Reeves (1976); Van Alphen, Havekes and Lugtenberg (1977) K10 Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Outer membrane protein LamB Roa (1979) (maltodextran selective channel) Me1 Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein c (OmpC) Verhoef, de Graaff and Lugtenberg (1977) Mu G(+) Myoviridae Escherichia coli Terminal Glcα-2Glcα1- or Sandulache, GlcNAcα1-2Glcα1- of the LPS Prehm and Kamp (1984) Mu G(−) Myoviridae Escherichia coli Terminal glucose with Sandulache et al. (1985) a βl,3 glycosidic linkage Erwinia Terminal glucose linked in βl,6 configuration M1 Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein OmpA Hashemolhosseini et al. (1994) Ox2 Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein OmpA^(a) Morona and Henning (1984) ST-1 Microviridae Escherichia coli Terminal Glcα-2Glcα1- Sandulache, or GlcNAcα1- Prehm and Kamp (1984) 2Glcα1- of the LPS TLS Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Antibiotic efflux protein TolC German and and the inner core of LPS Misra (2001) TuIa Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein Ia (OmpF) Datta, Arden and with LPS Henning (1977) TuIb Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein Ib (OmpC) with LPS TuII* Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein II* (OmpA) with LPS T1 Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Proteins TonA (FhuA, involved in Hantke and Braun (1975, 1978); ferrichrome uptake) and TonB^(b) Hancock and Braun (1976) T2 Myoviridae Escherichia coli Protein Ia (OmpF) with Hantke (1978); Morona and LPS and the outer Henning (1986); Black (1988) membrane protein FadL (involved in the uptake of long-chain fatty acids) T3 Podoviridae Escherichia coli Glucosyl-α-1,3-glucose Prehm et al. (1976) terminus of rough LPS T4 Myoviridae Escherichia coli K-12 Protein O-8 (OmpC) with LPS Prehm et al. (1976); Mutoh, Furukawa and Mizushima (1978); Goldberg, Grinius and Letellier (1994) Escherichia coli B Glucosyl-α-1,3-glucose terminus of rough LPS T5 Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Polymannose sequence in the Braun and Wolff (1973); O-antigen and protein FhuA Braun, Schaller and Wolff (1973); Heller and Braun (1982) T6 Myoviridae Escherichia coli Outer membrane protein Tsx Manning and Reeves (1976, 1978) (involved in nucleoside uptake) T7 Podoviridae Escherichia coli LPS^(c) Lindberg (1973) U3 Microviridae Escherichia coli Terminal galactose residue in LPS Picken and Beacham (1977) λ Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Protein LamB Randall-Hazelbauer and Schwartz (1973) ϕX174 Microviridae Escherichia coli Terminal galactose in the core Feige and Stirm (1976) oligosaccharide of rough LPS ϕ80 Siphoviridae Escherichia coli Proteins FhuA and TonB^(b) Hantke and Braun (1975, 1978); Wayne and Neilands (1975); Hancock and Braun (1976) PM2 Corticoviridae Pseudoalteromonas Sugar moieties on the Kivela et al. (2008) cell surface^(d) E79 Myoviridae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Core polysaccharide of LPS Meadow and Wells (1978) JG004 Myoviridae Pseudomonas aeruginosa LPS Garbe et al. (2011) ϕCTX Myoviridae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Core polysaccharide of Yokota, Hayashi LPS, with emphasis and Matsumoto (1994) on L-rhamnose and D-glucose residues in the outer core ϕPLS27 Podoviridae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Galactosamine-alanine region Jarrell and Kropinski (1981) of the LPS core ϕ13 Cystoviridae Pseudomonas syringae Truncated O-chain of LPS Mindich et al. (1999); Daugelavicius et al. (2005) ES18 Siphoviridae Salmonella Protein FhuA Killmann et al. (2001) Gifsy-1Gifsy-2 Siphoviridae Salmonella Protein OmpC Ho and Slauch (2001) SPC35 Siphoviridae Salmonella BtuB as the main receptor Kim and Ryu (2012) and O12-antigen as adsorption-assisting apparatus SPN1SSPN2TCWSPN4B Podoviridae Salmonella O-antigen of LPS Shin et al. (2012) SPN6TCW SPN8TCW SPN9TCW SPN13U SPN7CSPN9C SPN10H Siphoviridae Salmonella Protein BtuB SPN12C SPN14 SPN17T SPN18 vB_SenM-S16 (S16) Myoviridae Salmonella Protein OmpC Marti et al. (2013) L-413CP2 vir1 Myoviridae Yersinia pestis Terminal GlcNAc residue Filippov et al. (2011) of the LPS outer core. HepII/HepIII and HepI/Glc residues are also involved in receptor activity^(e) ϕJA1 Myoviridae Yersinia pestis Kdo/Ko pairs of inner core residues. LPS outer and inner core sugars are also involved in receptor activity^(e) T7_(Yp)Y (YpP-Y) Podoviridae Yersinia pestis HepI/Glc pairs of inner core residues. HepII/HepIII and Kdo/Ko pairs are also involved in receptor activity^(e) Pokrovskaya Podoviridae Yersinia pestis HepII/HepIII pairs of YepE2YpP-G inner core residues. HepI/Glc residues are also involved in receptor activity^(e) ϕA1122 Podoviridae Yersinia pestis Kdo/Ko pairs of inner core residues. HepI/Glc residues are also involved in receptor activity^(e) PST Myoviridae Yersinia pseudotuberculosis HepII/HepIII pairs of inner core residues^(e) (b) Receptors in the O-chain structure that are enzymatically cleaved by phages Ω8 Podoviridae Escherichia coli The α-1,3-mannosyl linkages between Reske, Wallenfels the trisaccharide repeating unit and Jann (1973) α-mannosyl-1,2-α-mannosyl- 1,2-mannose c341 Podoviridae Salmonella The O-acetyl group in the mannosyl- Iwashita and rhamnosyl-O-acetylgalactose Kanegasaki (1976) repeating sequence P22 Podoviridae Salmonella α-Rhmanosyl 1-3 galactose Iwashita and Kanegasaki (1973) linkage of the O-chain ε³⁴ Podoviridae Salmonella [-β-Gal-Man-Rha-] Takeda and Uetake (1973) polysaccharide units of the O-antigen Sf6 Podoviridae Shigella Rha II 1-α-3 Rha III linkage Lindberg et al. (1978) of the O-polysaccharide. ^(a)Sukupolvi (1984) suggested that LPS is also required for adsorption of phage Ox2 on E. coli and S. typhimurium, although the study verified that isolated OmpA is enough to inactivate the phage and that the binding is not increased with the addition of LPS to the protein. ^(b)According to Rakhuba et al. (2010), TonB is not a receptor itself, but acts as a mediator of electrochemical potential transmission; Vinga et al. (2006) stated that TonB is a membrane protein required for genome entry; Letellier et al. (2004) explained that TonB is part of a protein complex involved in the energy transduction from the electron transfer chain in the cytoplasmic membrane to the outer membrane receptors and speculated that it possibly might be critical for the genome injection through its interaction with FhuA. ^(c)Rhakuba et al. (2010) mentioned proteins FhuA and TonB as the receptors for T7; Molineux (2001) reported that ‘Bayer patches’, described as adhesion sites between the cytoplasmic membrane and the outer envelope of Gram-negative bacteria, are the proposed receptors for T7. ^(d)In 2010 the same group suggested that the adsorption of the phage on the sugar moieties of the host is an initial interaction, and that the true receptor is a protein molecule or protein complex (Cvirkaite-Krupovic 2010). ^(e)Kdo, 2-keto-3-deoxy-octulosonic acid; Ko, D-glycero-D-talo-oct-2-ulosonic acid; Hep, heptulose (ketoheptose); Glc, glucose; Gal, galactose; GlcNAc, N-acetylglucosamine (from Filippov et al. 2011).

RECEPTORS IN OTHER STRUCTURES OF GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA

In this section, bacterial structures, other than cell wall moieties, that also serve as receptors for phages are discussed. These include structures such as flagella, pili and capsules. They can be found in species from both Gram stains. See Table 3 for examples.

Optionally, the receptor of the invention is a flagellum, pilus or capsule component (eg, a component listed in Table 3 in the listed species or as found in a host that is of a different species to that listed). Optionally, the phage is a phage of a family listed in Table 3 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 3 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 3). Optionally, the phage is a phage listed in Table 3 (and optionally the host is the host for the phage as listed in Table 3 and/or the receptor is the receptor for the phage as listed in Table 3).

Flagella are long thin helical structures that confer motility to cells. They are composed of a basal body, a flagellar hook and a flagellar filament composed of subunits of flagellin proteins (Willey, Sherwood and Woolverton 2008). Table 3(a) reports phages attaching to flagellal proteins. The adhesion of phages to the filament structure is generally reversible and the flagellum's helical movement causes the phage to move along its surface until they reach the bacterial wall. Irreversible adsorption occurs, then, on receptors located on the surface of the bacterium, near the base of the flagellum (Schade, Adler and Ris 1967; Lindberg 1973; Guerrero-Ferreira et al. 2011). Interestingly, some phages (ϕCbK and ϕCb13) were observed to contain filaments protruding from their capsids that are responsible for reversible binding onto the host's flagellum; irreversible adsorption occurs only when the phage's tails interact with pili portals on the cell pole (Guerrero-Ferreira et al. 2011). Because for these phages irreversible adsorption occurs on the pilus, even if they interact with the flagellum, they were reported in Table 3(b), which focuses on phages interacting with receptors in pili and mating pair formation structures.

Pili are rod-shaped filamentous appendages used for bacterial conjugation (Lindberg 1973). They extend from the donor cell and attach to receptors on the wall of the recipient cell. A depolymerization of the pilus causes its retraction, bringing both cells closer to each other. Further adhesion of the cells is achieved through binding proteins on their surfaces; genetic material is transferred through this conjugating junction (Madigan et al. 2012). Adsorption to the pilus structure has been so far associated with phages that belong to orders different from Caudovirales (Table 3b). In fact, according to Frost (1993), the families Cystoviridae and Inoviridae compose the majority of phages that adsorb onto pili structures. Interestingly, phages can be selective towards certain parts of the pili. That is the case for F-type phages, whose adsorption occur only on the tip of the pilus (Click and Webster 1998). In other phages, such as ϕ6, the attachment happens at the sides (shaft) of the structure (Daugelavicius et al. 2005).

TABLE 3 Receptors in bacterial complexes other than cell wall structures. Host names are ordered alphabetically. Phages Family Main host Receptor(s) References (a) Receptors in flagella SPN2T SPN3C Siphoviridae Salmonella Flagellin protein FliC Shin et al. (2012) - SPN8T SPN9T SPN11T SPN13B SPN16C SPN4SSPN5T Siphoviridae Salmonella Flagellin proteins FliC or FliB SPN6T SPN19 iEPS5 Siphoviridae Salmonella Flagellal molecular ruler protein FliK Choi et al. (2013); Chaturongakul and Ounjai (2014) (b) Receptors in pili and mating pair formation structures ϕCbK ϕCb13 Siphoviridae Caulobacter Initial contact between phage head Guerrero-Ferreira et al. (2011) crescentus filament and host's flagellum followed by pili portals on the cell pole FdFff1M13 Inoviridae Escherichia Tip of the F pilus followed by TolQRA Loeb (1960); Caro and Schnos coli complex in membrane after pilus (1966); Russel et al. (1988); retraction Click and Webster (1998) PRD1 Tectiviridae Escherichia Mating pair formation (Mpf) complex in Daugelavicius et al. (1997) coli the membrane ϕ6 Cystoviridae Pseudomonas Sides of the type IV pilus Vidaver, Koski and Van Etten (1973); Daugelavicius et al. (2005) MPK7 Podoviridae Pseudomonas Type IV pili (TFP) Bae and Cho (2013) aeruginosa MP22 Siphoviridae Pseudomonas Type IV pili (TFP) Heo et al. (2007) aeruginosa DMS3 Siphoviridae Pseudomonas Type IV pili (TFP) Budzik et al. (2004) aeruginosa (c) Receptors in bacterial capsules 29 Podoviridae Escherichia Endoglycosidase hydrolysis in β-D- Stirm et al. (1971); Fehmel et coli glucosido-(1-3)-D-glucoronic acid bonds al. (1975) in the capsule composed of hexasaccharides repeating units K11 Podoviridae Klebsiella Hydrolysis of β-D-glucosyl-(1-3)-β-D- Thurow, Niemann and Stirm glucuronic acid linkages. The phage is (1975) also able to cleave α-D-galactosyl-(1-3)- β-D-glucose bonds Vi I Myoviridae Salmonella Acetyl groups of the Vi Pickard et al. (2010) - exopolysaccharide capsule (a polymer of α-1,4-linked N-acetyl galactosaminuronate) Vi II Siphoviridae Salmonella Acetyl groups of the Vi exopolysaccharide capsule (a polymer of α-1,4-linked N-acetyl galactosaminuronate) Vi IIIVi IVVi VVi Podoviridae Salmonella Acetyl groups of the Vi — VIVi VII exopolysaccharide capsule (a polymer of α-1,4-linked N-acetyl galactosaminuronate)

Capsules are flexible cementing substances that extend radially from the cell wall. They act as binding agents between bacteria and/or between cells and substrates (Beveridge and Graham 1991). Slime layers are similar to capsules, but are more easily deformed. Both are made of sticky substances released by bacteria, and their common components are polysaccharides or proteins (Madigan et al. 2012). Adsorption of phages to capsules or slime layers is mediated by enzymatic cleavage of the exopolysaccharides that compose the layers. The hydrolysis of the layer is a reversible step, whereas irreversible binding is achieved through bonding of the phage with receptors on the cell wall (Rakhuba et al. 2010). As can be seen in Table 3(c), the few phages identified to have RBP recognizing exopolysaccharides are mostly of Podoviridae morphology.

In an example, the host is Salmonella (eg, S enterica Serovar Typhimurium) and the receptor is selected from flagella, vitamin B₁₂ uptake outer membrane protein, BtuB and lipopolysaccharide-related O-antigen. In an example the receptor is a flagellum or BtuB and the phage are Siphoviridae phage. In an example the receptor is O-antigen of LPS and the phage are Podoviridae phage. Optionally, the receptor is FliC host receptor or FljB receptor.

Optionally, the host is S enterica or P aeruginosa. Optionally, the receptor is the receptor of the host as listed in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Specific host receptors for Salmonella and P. aeruginosa phages. Specific host receptors Reference Flagellar proteins S. enterica FliC and Shin et al. (2012) FljB FliK Choi et al. (2013) Outermembrane proteins OmpC Ho and Slauch (2001), Marti et al. (2013) BtuB Kim and Ryu (2011) TolC Ricci and Piddock (2010) FhuA Casjens et al. (2005) Surface antigens O-antigen Shin et al. (2012) Vi-antigen Pickard et al. (2010) Surface antigens P. aeruginosa O-antigen Le et al. (2013) Vi-antigen Temple et al. (1986), Hanlon et al. (2001) Type IV pili PilA Bae and Cho (2013), Heo et al. (2007)

The O-antigen structure of Salmonella O66 has been established, which reportedly differs from the known O-antigen structure of Escherichia coli O166 only in one linkage (most likely the linkage between the O-units) and O-acetylation. The O-antigen gene clusters of Salmonella O66 and E. coli O166 were found to have similar organizations, the only exception being that in Salmonella O66, the wzy gene is replaced by a non-coding region. The function of the wzy gene in E. coli O166 was confirmed by the construction and analysis of deletion and trans-complementation mutants. It is proposed that a functional wzy gene located outside the O-antigen gene cluster is involved in Salmonella O66 0-antigen biosynthesis, as has been reported previously in Salmonella serogroups A, B and D1. The sequence identity for the corresponding genes between the O-antigen gene clusters of Salmonella O66 and E. coli O166 ranges from 64 to 70%, indicating that they may originate from a common ancestor. It is likely that after the species divergence, Salmonella O66 got its specific O-antigen form by inactivation of the wzy gene located in the O-antigen gene cluster and acquisition of two new genes (a wzy gene and a prophage gene for O-acetyl modification) both residing outside the O-antigen gene cluster.

In an example, the second cells are engineered to comprise an expressible E coli (eg, Escherichia coli O166) wzy gene. In an example, the second cells do not comprise an expressible E coli (eg, Escherichia coli O166) wzy gene. Optionally, the host cells are E coli or Salmonella (eg, Salmonella 066) cells.

In an example, the phage or particle comprises a phage genome or a phagemid, eg, wherein the genome or phagemid comprises DNA encoding one or more proteins or nucleic acids of interest, such as crRNAs for targeting host cell genomes or antibiotics for killing host cells.

In an alternative, instead of bacteria, the host and second cells (propagator cells) are archaeal cells and the disclosure herein relating to bacteria instead can be read as applying mutatis mutandis to archaea.

Target host strains or species of bacteria may comprise restriction-modification system (R-M system), such as R-M comprising restriction endonucleases, that can recognize and cut or otherwise destroy or degrade invading nucleic acid. Host DNA is protected by the action of methyltransferases that methylate host DNA and protect it from the R-M system. It may be desirable, therefore, to provide second bacterial cells (propagator cells) that do not comprise an R-M system or whose genome is devoid of nucleic acid encoding one or more restriction endonucleases which are encoded by host cells. Additionally or alternatively, the second cells comprise nucleic acid encoding one or more methyltransferases which are encoded by host cells, optionally all or substantially all (eg, at least 50, 60, 70 80 or 90%) of all of the methyltransferases encoded by host cells. Optionally, the second cells comprise nucleic acid encoding 1, 2,3 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 or (or at least 1, 2,3 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10) methyltransferases encoded by host cells.

Advantageously, to produce phage or transduction particles targeting a specific bacterial host population, it may be beneficial to produce the phage or particles in a strain of bacteria related to the target host strain, for example to produce phage or particle nucleic acid (eg, DNA) that can evade host cell defence mechanisms, such as R-M systems or restriction endonuclease action. Optionally, therefore, the host cells and second cells (propagator cells) are cells of the same species (or the same strain of species except that the second cells comprise one or more genetic modifications that are not found in the genomes of host cells; such modification can be deletion of one or more protospacer sequences, for example wherein the host cells comprise such sequence(s) and the phage or particles express crRNA that recognize the sequences in the host cells to guide Cas and to modify the protospacer sequence(s)). For example, modification of the DNA of the phage or particles by methyltransferases in the second bacteria can be useful to shield the DNA against restriction modification once the phage or particles subsequently infect the target host cells where the latter also comprise methyltranferases in common with the second cells. By adapting (or choosing) the second cells as per the invention to display a surface receptor that is also displayed on the host cells, the invention enables phage or particle production in a strain that may display beneficial DNA modification against restriction modification subsequently by the target host bacteria. Usefully, the protospacer sequence(s) to which (in one embodiment) crRNAs encoded by the phage or particles are targeted in the target host bacteria may be deleted or naturally absent in the genome of the second bacteria, such that Cas-mediated cutting of the second cell genomes does not take place during the production of the phage or particles.

A heterologous methyltransferase (MTase) can be used to confer on a production bacterium (propagator bacterium or second cells herein) a similar methylation pattern as that of a target host bacterium. See, for example, WO2016205276, which incorporated herein by reference, for example to provide illustration of how to provide production strain genomes comprising desirable MTases for use in the present invention). In bacteria and archaea, some DNA methyltransferases can be separated into three distinct classes depending on the location of the modification and type of reaction they catalyze. N6-methyladenine (m6A) and N4-methylcytosine (m4C) result from methylation of the amino moiety of adenine and cytosine, respectively, while 5-methylcytosine (m5C) is the result of methylation at the C5 position of cytosine.

A non-limiting example of a DNA MTase useful with the invention includes LlaPI from phage Φ50, which can be introduced to protect against type II R-M systems in lactococci (Hill et al. J Bacteriol. 173(14):4363-70 (1991)). Optionally, the production bacterium encodes and expresses one or more DNA modification enzymes that catalyse methylation of adenines, eg, to produce N6-methyladenine (m6A). Optionally, the production bacterium encodes and expresses one or more DNA modification enzymes that catalyse methylation of cytosines, eg, to produce N4-methylcytosine (m4C) or 5-methylcytosine (m5C). Optionally, the production bacterium encodes and expresses one or more DNA modification enzymes that catalyse acetimidation of adenine residues. Some R-M systems are sensitive to adenine methylation. Polypeptides that acetimidate the adenine residues in the phage or particle DNA will protect the DNA against such systems. Non-limiting examples of polypeptides that can acetimidate adenine residues in the production host bacteria include the mom gene from phage Mu and the Mu-like prophage sequences (see, Haemophilus influenzae Rd (FluMu), Neisseria meningitidis type A strain Z2491 (Pnmel) and H. influenzae biotype aegyptius ATCC 111 16), which converts adenine residues to N(6)-methyladenine, thereby protecting against adenine sensitive restriction enzymes. The methylation patterns conferred by individual methyltransferases can be assessed using established DNA sequencing technologies such as Pacbio SMRT sequencing (O'Loughlin et al. PLoS One. 2015:e0118533). Once generated, the production strain can be used to produce bacteriophage particles for DNA delivery into the target strain.

Bacterial “restriction-modification systems” (R-M systems) comprise (1) methyltransferases that methylate DNA at specific sequences and/or (2) restriction enzymes that cleave DNA that are unmethylated (Types I, II, and III) or methylated (Type IV). The R-M systems constitute a bacterial defence system wherein DNA with foreign methylation patterns is cleaved in multiple locations by the restriction enzymes of the R-M systems. Most: bacteria comprise more than one R-M system. Roberts, R. J. et al. Nucleic Acids Res . 31 , 1805-1812 (2003). Type I methyltransferases require the presence of a compatible specificity protein for functionality. Type II and type III methyltransferases do not require any additional proteins to function. Thus, methyltransferases and restriction enzymes useful with this invention (either as targets for modification or inhibition, or as heterologous polypeptides to be expressed in a production bacterium, thereby modifying the R-M system of the production bacterium) can include any methyltransferase or restriction enzyme comprised in a bacterial restriction-modification system (e.g. Type I, II, III, or IV). Thus, in an example, the genome of the production bacterium (second or propagator cell) encodes a Type I methyltransferase that is also encoded by the host bacterium. Additionally or alternatively, in an example, the genome of the production bacterium (second or propagator cell) encodes a Type II methyltransferase that is also encoded by the host bacterium. Additionally or alternatively, in an example, the genome of the production bacterium (second or propagator cell) encodes a Type III methyltransferase that is also encoded by the host bacterium. Additionally or alternatively, in an example, the genome of the production bacterium (second or propagator cell) encodes a Type IV methyltransferase that is also encoded by the host bacterium.

In an example, two or more (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or 15) nucleic acid sequences encoding enzymes of the endogenous restriction modification system of a production bacterium are disrupted or altered in activity (eg, reduced or eliminated in activity).

A production bacterium (ie, second cell or propagator cell) can be a gram positive or gram negative bacterium. Thus, for example, production bacterium is an Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Salmonella enteria, Streptococcus thermophilus, Listeria, Campylobacter or Staphylococcus aureus bacterium. In an example, the production bacterium is an E. coli strain MG1655, Nissle, BW25113, BL21, TOP10, or MG1655 Δdam Δdcm ΔhsdRMS.

The activity of an enzyme of an endogenous R-M system may be disrupted using methods well known in the art or later developed for disrupting the function and activity of a polypeptide. Such methods can include, but are not limited to, generating point mutations (e.g., missense, or nonsense, or insertions or deletions of single base pairs that result in frame shifts), insertions, deletions, and/or truncations. In some embodiments, a polypeptide inhibitor may be used to disrupt or suppress the activity of an enzyme of a bacterial restriction modification system (R-M system). Such polypeptide inhibitors are known in the art. Polypeptide inhibitors may be encoded, for example, within the phage or particle DNA and/or packaged as proteins in the phage or particle. For example, P1 phage encodes two polypeptide inhibitors that inhibit Type I restriction enzymes found in E. coli (Lobocka et al. J. Bacteriol. 186, 7032-7068 (2004)). In some embodiments, an endogenous R-M system may be inhibited or disrupted by the introduction of polypeptide inhibitors, polypeptides that stimulate the activity of the host methylation enzymes to accelerate the methylation and protection of the delivered DNA.

Inhibitors of R-M system enzymes include but are not limited to proteins that degrade a REase (restriction endonuclease), thereby preventing the host R-M enzyme system from cleaving the phage or particle DNA. Non-limiting examples of an R-M enzyme inhibitor that may be used with this invention to disrupt or modify the activity of an endogenous bacterial R-M system enzyme include (a) orf18 from Enterococcus faecalis, which produces the protein ArdA that inhibits all major classes of type I R-M systems; and (b) gp0.3 from bacteriophage T7 produces the protein Ocr that sequesters the type I R-M enzyme EcoKI. Additional non-limiting examples of proteins that may be used to block the activity of an enzyme of an R-M system include masking proteins. Masking proteins are packaged into the phage head and upon DNA injection bind the phage DNA, thereby masking R-M recognition sites. Non-limiting examples of masking proteins useful with this invention include DarA and DarB proteins (Iida et al. Virology. 1 57(1): 156-66 (1987)). These proteins are expressed by the P1 bacteriophage during the lytic cycle and are packaged into the head. Upon DNA injection to a host bacterium, they bind and mask the Type I R-M recognition sites.

In addition to or in the alternative, an endogenous R-M system of a production bacterium can be altered/modified through the expression of at least one heterologous methyltransferase. Any methyltransferase that alters the endogenous methylation pattern of a production host bacterium so that the methylation pattern of the production host bacterium is substantially similar to the methylation pattern of the target host bacterium can be used with this invention. The heterologous methyltransferase may be from the same or a different organism as long as it confers a methylation pattern substantially similar to the production host bacterium as the target bacterial strain. A non-limiting example of a DNA MTase useful with the invention includes LlaPI from phage Φ50, which can be introduced to protect against type II R-M systems in lactococci (McGrath et al. Applied Environmental Microbiology. 65:1891 -1899 (1999)). The methylation patterns conferred by individual methyltransferases are then assessed using established DNA sequencing technologies such as Pacbio SMRT sequencing (O'Loughlin et al. Pl.oS One. 2015:e0118533). Once generated, the production strain is used to produce phage or particles for DNA delivery into the target host strain.

Further heterologous DNA modification enzymes can be expressed in a production bacterium so that the R-M system of the production bacterium is made substantially similar to the R-M system of the target host bacterium. Examples of such DNA modification enzymes useful for this purpose include those that encode polypeptides that convert the adenine residues in the DNA to acetamidoadenine. Polypeptides that convert the adenine residues in the phage or particle DNA to acetamidoadenine will protect the DNA against restriction enzymes that are sensitive to adenine methylation. Non-limiting examples of polypeptides that can convert the adenine residues in the DNA to acetamidoadenine in the production bacteria include the mom gene from phage Mu and the Mu-like prophage sequences (see, Haemophilus influenzae Rd (FluMu), Neisseria meningitidis type A strain Z2491 (Pnme 1) and H. influenzae biotype aegyptius ATCC 1 1116; (Drozdz et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 40(5):2119-30 (2012)), which converts adenine residues to N(6)-methyladenine, thereby protecting against adenine-sensitive restriction enzymes.

In some embodiments, the polynucleotides encoding polypeptide inhibitors and other DNA modification enzymes as described herein can be introduced into the phage or particle genome directly for use in protecting the delivered DNA from the R-M system of the target host bacterium.

Accordingly, in some embodiments, the invention provides a method of increasing the efficiency of introducing a heterologous nucleic acid of interest into a target host bacterium via bacteriophage or transduction particles, comprising introducing at least one heterologous nucleic acid of interest into a phage or particle DNA prior to introduction of a production bacterium, wherein the production host bacterium has been modified to disrupt at least one enzyme of an endogenous R-M system and/or to comprise a polynucleotide encoding at least one heterologous methyltransferase, thereby methylating said phage or particle DNA and producing phage or particle DNA comprising the at least one heterologous nucleic acid of interest having a modified methylation pattern (as compared to phage or particle DNA produced in a production bacterium without said altered methylating activity); producing a phage or particle comprising said recombinant DNA comprising the at least one heterologous nucleic acid of interest; and infecting a target host bacterium with said bacteriophage or particle, wherein the target host bacterium has a methylation pattern (or R-M system(s)) that is identical, similar to or substantially similar to that of the production bacterium, thereby increasing the efficiency of introducing said heterologous nucleic acid of interest into said target host bacterium as compared to introducing said heterologous nucleic acid of interest using a bacteriophage grown in a control production bacterium (wherein the control production host bacterium has not had its methylation activity altered to be identical, similar or substantially similar with that of the target host bacterium). In some aspects, the production bacterium can be modified to alter its R-M system (e.g., disrupt at least one enzyme of an endogenous R-M system and/or to comprise a polynucleotide encoding at least one heterologous methyl transferase) after infection by the phage or particle.

In some embodiments a method of increasing the efficiency of introducing a heterologous nucleic acid of interest into a target host bacterium via a phage or transduction particle is provided, comprising: infecting a production bacterium with a bacteriophage or particle comprising DNA comprising at least one heterologous nucleic acid of interest, wherein the production bacterium has altered methylating activity via disruption of at least one enzyme of an endogenous R-M system and/or expression of at least one heterologous methyltransferase, thereby methylating said DNA; producing a bacteriophage particle comprising bacteriophage or particle DNA having a modified methylation pattern and comprising/encoding the at least one heterologous nucleic acid of interest; and infecting a target host bacterium with said bacteriophage or particle, wherein the target host bacterium has a methylation pattern (or R-M system(s)) that is identical, similar or substantially similar with that of the production host bacterium, thereby increasing the efficiency of introducing said heterologous nucleic acid of interest into said target host bacterium as compared to introducing said heterologous nucleic acid of interest using a bacteriophage or particle produced in a control production bacterium (wherein the control production bacterium has not had its methylation activity altered to be identical, similar substantially similar to that of the target host bacterium as described herein). In some aspects, the production bacterium can be modified to alter its R-M system (e.g., disrupt at least one enzyme of an endogenous R-M system and/or to comprise a polynucleotide encoding at least one heterologous methyltransferase) after infection by the bacteriophage or particle.

In an example, the target host bacterium is chosen on the basis of having a DNA methylation pattern substantially similar to a production host bacterium's restriction-modification system(s) (R-M system).

A methylation pattern is determined by the type of methylation (e.g. m4C) present in the bacterium as well as the particular sequence that is methylated (e.g. GmATC). Thus, the level of similarity (whether it is natural or the result of modifications) between methylation patterns refers to the frequency by which target sites having the appropriate type of methylation. Thus, a substantially similar methylation pattern means having at least about 20% or greater similarity (e.g., 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71 , 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or more, or any range or value therein) between the target sites having the appropriate type of methylation as described herein. Thus, in some embodiments, a methylation pattern can be between about 20% to 99% or more similar, about 30% to 99% or more % similar, about 40% to 99% or more similar, about 50% to 99% or more similar, about 60% to 99% or more similar, about 70% to 99% or more similar, about 80% to 99% or more similar, about 85% to 99% or more similar, about 90% to 99% or more similar, or about 95% to 99% or more similar, between host and target bacteria. Substantial similarity between methylation patterns of a target host bacterium and the introduced DNA (bacteriophage or particle DNA that has been modified) means that the introduced DNA is less degraded than that of an introduced DNA that does not share a substantially similar methylation pattern with the target host bacterium. In some embodiments, the methylation pattern of a production bacterium and a target bacterium can be identical.

In some embodiments, the invention provides a bacteriophage or particle comprising DNA that comprise a modified DNA methylation pattern that is identical, similar or substantially similar to a target host bacterium's R-M system(s) and wherein at least one heterologous nucleic acid of interest is integrated into the bacteriophage or particle DNA (genome). Thus, for example, a bacteriophage or transduction particle DNA having a modified methylation pattern (that is substantially similar to a target host bacterium's R-M system(s)) can comprise (1) a polynucleotide encoding a CRISPR array or (2) a Type II CRISPR-Cas system comprising: (a) a polynucleotide encoding a Cas9 polypeptide; (b) a polynucleotide encoding a CRISPR array; and/or c) a tracr nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide encoding a CRISPR array (a) and the tracr nucleic acid (c) can be fused to one another. In additional embodiments, a bacteriophage or particle DNA having a modified methylation pattern (that is identical, similar or substantially similar to a target host bacterium's R-M system(s)) can comprise (1) a polynucleotide encoding a CRISPR array or (2) a recombinant Type I CRISPR-Cas system comprising: (a) a polynucleotide encoding a CRISPR array; and/or (b) at least one polynucleotide encoding one or more Type I CRISPR polypeptides. In some embodiments, the at least one heterologous nucleic acid of interest can be integrated into the bacteriophage or particle DNA (e.g., genome) at a dispensable site of integration or at a complemented site of integration.

As used herein, “dispensable site” means a site in the DNA or genome that is not necessary for maintenance of the bacteriophage or particle genome, the generation of phage or particles, and the delivery of packaged DNA. Thus, any site in a bacteriophage or particle genome that is not required for carrying out such functions can be used as a “landing” site for integrating a nucleic acid of interest. Some exemplary dispensable sites include, but are not limited to, (a) a phage-encoded restriction-modification system (e.g., res/mod in P1 phage), (b) a gene that blocks superinfection (e.g., simABC), (c) an inhibitor of a restriction-modification system (e.g., darA in P1 phage), (d) an insertion sequence element (e.g., IS1 in P1 phage), (e) an addiction system (e.g., phd/doc in P1 phage) or (f) any combination thereof.

A “complemented site” or a “complementable site” as used herein means an

indispensible site in the bacteriophage or particle DNA or genome that is necessary for maintenance of the bacteriophage or particle genome, the generation of phage or particles, and the delivery of packaged DNA but which can be complemented by a complementing polynucleotide encoding the nucleic acid that is disrupted by the integration (complemented site of integration) of the nucleic acid of interest. The complementing polynucleotide can be integrated into the genome of the production bacterium or it can be comprised on a plasmid in the production bacterium. Accordingly, when the nucleic acid of interest is integrated into a complemented site of a bacteriophage or particle DNA, the production bacterium can comprise on a plasmid or in its genome a polynucleotide encoding a complement to the complemented site in the bacteriophage or particle DNA. Exemplary complemented sites can include, but are not limited to, (a) an activator of the lytic cycle (e.g., coi in P1 phage), (b) a lytic gene (e.g., kilA in P1 phage), (c) a tRNA (e.g., tRNA1 ,2 in P1 phage), (d) a particle component (e.g., cixL and cixR tail fiber genes in P1 phage), or (e) any combination thereof.

In an embodiment, the methylation pattern of a production strain, such as Escherichia coli MG1655 or Bacillus subtilis 168, is altered by deleting its endogenous restriction-modification systems and introducing heterologous methyltransferase genes as follows. The restriction-modification genes are identified through means that are known in the art, such as through the online REBASE database (Roberts et al. Nucleic Acids Res 43:D298-D299. doi.org/10.1093/nar/gku1046). These restriction-modification systems can be deleted using standard recombineering strategies known in the art. Once deleted, foreign methyltransferase genes are inserted into replicative plasmids or recombineered into the host genome under the control of a constitutive or inducible promoter. These genes are obtained directly from the target strain using the natural sequence or a sequence codon-optimized for the production host. Alternatively, heterologous methyltransferase genes can be used to confer a similar methylation patterns as the target strain. The methylation patterns conferred by individual methyltransferases are then assessed using established DNA sequencing technologies such as PacBio SMRT sequencing (O'Loughlin et al. PLoS One. 2015:e0118533.). Once generated, the production strain is used to produce bacteriophage or transduction particles for DNA delivery into the target host strain.

Promoters:

Promoters can include, for example, constitutive, inducible, temporally regulated, developmentally regulated, chemically regulated promoters for use in the preparation of recombinant nucleic acid constructs, polynucleotides, expression cassettes and vectors comprising the polynucleotides and recombinant nucleic acid constructs of the invention. These various types of promoters are known in the art.

Thus, in some embodiments, expression herein according to the invention can be made constitutive, inducible, temporally regulated, developmentally regulated, chemically regulated promoters using the recombinant nucleic acid constructs of the invention operatively linked to the appropriate promoter functional in an organism of interest. In representative embodiments, repression can be made reversible using the recombinant nucleic acid constructs of the invention operatively linked to, for example, an inducible promoter functional in an organism of interest.

The choice of promoter will vary depending on the quantitative, temporal and spatial requirements for expression, and also depending on the host cell to be transformed. Promoters for many different organisms are well known in the art. Based on the extensive knowledge present in the art, the appropriate promoter can be selected for the particular host organism of interest. Thus, for example, much is known about promoters upstream of highly constitutively expressed genes in model organisms and such knowledge can be readily accessed and implemented in other systems as appropriate.

Exemplary promoters include useful with this invention include promoters functional in bacteria. A promoter useful with bacteria can include, but is not limited to, L-arabinose inducible (araBAD, P_(BAD)) promoter, any lac promoter, L-rhamnose inducible (rhaP_(B)AD) promoter, T7 RNA polymerase promoter, trc promoter, tac promoter, lambda phage promoter (P_(L),P_(L)-9G-50), anhydrotetracycline-inducible (tetA) promoter, tip, lpp, phoA, recA, proU, cst-1, cadA, nar, lpp-lac, cspA, T7-lac operator, T3-lac operator, T4 gene 32, T5-lac operator, nprM-lac operator, Vhb, Protein A, corynebacterial-E. coli like promoters, thr, horn, diphtheria toxin promoter, sig A, sig B, nusG, SoxS, katb, alpha-amylase (Pamy), Ptms, P43 (comprised of two overlapping RNA polymerase σfactor recognition sites, σA, σB), Ptms, P43, rplK-rplA, ferredoxin promoter, and/or xylose promoter. (See, K. Terpe Appl. Microbiol, Biotechnol. 72:211-222 (2006); Hannig et al. Trends in Biotechnology 16:54-60 (1998); and Srivastava Protein Expr Purif 40:221-229 (2005)).

In some embodiments of the invention, inducible promoters can be used. Thus, for example, chemical-regulated promoters can be used to modulate the expression of a gene in an organism through the application of an exogenous chemical regulator. Regulation of the expression of nucleotide sequences of the invention via promoters that are chemically regulated enables the RNAs and/or the polypeptides of the invention to be synthesized only when, for example, an organism is treated with the inducing chemicals. Depending upon the objective, the promoter may be a chemical-inducible promoter, where application of a chemical induces gene expression, or a chemical-repressible promoter, where application of the chemical represses gene expression. In some aspects, a promoter can also include a light-inducible promoter, where application of specific wavelengths of light induce gene expression (Levskaya et al. 2005. Nature 438:441-442).

Statements

By way of illustration, the invention provides the following Statements.

-   -   1. A method of producing a population of phage, wherein the         phage are of a first type capable of infecting cells of a first         bacterial species or strain (host cells) by binding a         cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said species or         strain, the method comprising         -   (a) Providing a population of second cells comprising the             receptor on the surface thereof, wherein the second cells             are of a second species or strain, wherein the second             species or strain is different from the first species or             strain;         -   (b) Infecting the second cells with phage of said first             type;         -   (c) Propagating the phage in the second cells, thereby             producing the population of phage; and         -   (d) Optionally isolating phage of said population.

Preferably, the second cells are bacterial cells. Alternatively, the second cells are archaeal cells; eukaryotic cells, yeast cells, CHO cells or HEK293 cells.

In an embodiment, the receptor comprises a protein that is encoded by an expressible exogenous nucleotide sequence (ie a non wild-type sequence of the second bacteria), wherein the exogenous sequence is comprises by the genome of the second bacteria. For example, the nucleotide sequence is identical to or at least 85, 90, 95 or 98% identical to a nucleotide sequence comprised by host cells.

In another embodiment, the receptor comprises a sugar moiety that is produced by the action of one or more enzymes in the second bacteria, wherein the genome of the second bacteria comprise one or more expressible exogenous nucleotide sequences (ie a non wild-type sequence of the second bacteria) encoding one or more of the enzyme(s). For example, each nucleotide sequence is identical to or at least 85, 90, 95 or 98% identical to a nucleotide sequence comprised by host cells.

Optionally, the second species or strain do not naturally express the receptor. The host and/or second cells may be engineered cells. The host and/or second cells may be non-naturally-occurring bacterial cells. The host and/or second cells may be non-wild-type cells.

Optionally the host cells comprise an expressible exogenous nucleotide sequence (eg, chromosomally integrated) encoding the receptor.

In an alternative, instead of infecting the second cells with the phage in step (b), phage-encoding DNA is introduced by other means into the second cells, eg, by electroporation. In an example, step (c) comprises culturing the second cells, eg, in a culture vessel, such as a steel fermentation tank.

The second cells comprise cellular machinery operable to replicate DNA encoding the phage.

In an example, the host cells are pathogenic to humans (eg, the host cells are C difficile cells) and/or the second cells are non-pathogenic to humans or are cells of a gut commensal species (eg, the second cells are Lactobacillus cells, such as L lactis or reuteri cells). For example, the second cells are carrier cells, eg, as described in US20160333348 (this specific dislosure being incorporated herein by reference). In an example, the invention provides a method of treating or preventing a host cell infection in a human or animal subject (eg, an infecton of the gut of the subject), the method comprising administering a population of said second cells to the subject (eg, to populate the gut of the subject) wherein the cells are carrier cells comprising said phage (eg, prophage) of the first type, wherein the phage encode cRNAs or gRNAs that target a protospacer sequence in host cells comprised by the subject (eg, host cells comprised by the gut of the subject), wherein the second cells are carriers for phage that infect host cells in the subject, wherein phage nucleic acid encoding said crRNAs or gRNAs are produced in host cells thereby forming an active CRISPR/Cas system in the host cells, whereby Cas is guided by the crRNAs or gRNAs to a protospacer sequence comprised by the host cells genome to modify (eg, cut) host cell DNA thereby killing host cells or inhibiting host cell growth or proliferation, whereby the infection is treated or preveneted. In an embodiment, such a method is for treating or preventing a disease or condition of the subject, wherein the disease or condition is associated or caused by the host cell infection, whereby the disease or condition is treated or prevented. The host cells and/or the second cells can be any such cells disclosed herein.

-   -   2. The method of Statement 1, wherein the phage comprise a         nucleotide sequence encoding crRNAs (or single guide RNAs) that         are operable with Cas (and tracrRNA where necessary) in bacteria         of said host cell strain or species to form an active CRISPR/Cas         system that is capable of targeting one or more protospacer         nucleotide sequences, wherein each target sequence is comprised         by the genome of said host cells, whereby the crRNAs (or gRNAs)         guide Cas in host cells to modify (eg, cut) the target         sequence(s), thereby killing host cells or reducing host cell         population growth.

In an example, the phage comprise a HM-array or gRNA-encoding nucleotide sequence as disclosed in US20160333348, the specific disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

-   -   3. The method of Statement 2, wherein when infected by the         phage, the second cells do not comprise said active CRISPR/Cas         system.

For example, one or more Cas is repressed, inactivated or knocked-out in the second cells, wherein the second cells comprise a defective CRISPR/Cas system that is not operable with the crRNAs or gRNAs.

In an example, the active CRISPR/Cas system is as disclosed in US20160333348, the specific disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

-   -   4. The method of Statement 2 or 3, wherein the genome of each         second bacterial cell does not comprise a said target sequence.

In an example, the target sequence is as disclosed in US20160333348, the specific disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

-   -   5. The method of any one of Statements 2 to 4, wherein         -   (a) Cas (eg, Cas3, 9, cpfl and/or CASCADE Cas) of said             second cells is not operable with said crRNAs (or gRNAs);         -   (b) tracrRNA of said second cells is not operable with said             crRNAs; and/or         -   (c) said second cells are not operable to produce said             crRNAs from said crRNA-encoding nucleotide sequence (or are             not operable to produce said gRNAs from said gRNA-encoding             nucleotide sequence).     -   6. The method of any one of Statements 2 to 5, wherein the         crRNAs (or gRNAs) comprise repeat sequences that are not         operable with Cas of the second cells (eg, Cas3, 9, cpfl and/or         CASCADE Cas of the second cells).

In an example, the repeat(s) is (are) as disclosed in US20160333348, the specific disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

-   -   7. The method of any one of Statements 2 to 6, wherein said         phage nucleotide sequence is operably connected with a promoter         for transcription of crRNAs (or gRNAs) in bacteria of said host         species or strain, but not in said second species or strain.

In an example, the promoter is constitutively active in the second cells.

-   -   8. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein bacteria of         said host species or strain comprise an anti-phage toxin or         mechanism for killing or reducing the propagation of phage of         said first type that infect host bacteria, wherein the second         bacteria do not comprise said toxin or mechanism.     -   9. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein bacteria of         said host species or strain comprise a CRISPR/Cas system that is         active for killing or reducing the propagation of phage of said         first type that infect host bacteria, wherein the second         bacteria do not comprise said system.     -   10. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the second         bacterial cells are engineered to produce the receptor, wherein         wild-type bacteria of said second species or strain do not         produce said receptor.     -   11. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the phage         comprise an origin of replication that is operable in said         second cells and in cells of said first species or strain.     -   12. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the second         cells are E coli cells. For example, the second cells are not         pathogenic to humans. For example, the second cells are Hazard         Group 1 or 2 cells (eg, such of a species noted as Group 2 in         the table herein).

13. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the first and second cells are of the same species (eg, E coli strains).

For example, the second cells are engineered versions of the host cells, eg, wherein the second cells comprise a defective CRISPR/Cas system as mentioned herein and/or do not comprise a said protospacer sequence and/or do not express a toxin that is expressed by host cells.

-   -   14. The method of Statement 13, wherein the strain of host cells         is a human pathogenic strain (eg, C difficile) and the second         cell strain is not human pathogenic strain (eg, a Lactobacillus,         such as L reuteri or lactis).     -   15. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the second         cells are cells of a lower hazard category (eg, Hazard Group 1         or 2) compared to cells of the host species or strain (eg,         Hazard Group 3 or 4). See Tables 5 and 6.     -   16. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the receptor         is selected from lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids (eg, a         ManNAc(β→4)GlcNAc disaccharide with one to three glycerol         phosphates attached to the C4 hydroxyl of the ManNAc residue         followed by a long chain of glycerol- or ribitol phosphate         repeats), proteins and flagella.     -   17. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the receptor         comprises an O-antigen of the host cells.     -   18. The method of any preceding Statement, wherein the phage are         operable to express an endolysin or holin in second cells, eg,         when phage replicate in second cells.     -   19. A cell (propagator cell) for propagating phage, wherein the         phage are of a first type capable of infecting cells of a first         bacterial species or strain (host cells) by binding a         cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said species or         strain, the propagator cell comprising the receptor on the         surface thereof, wherein the propagator cell is of a second         species or strain, wherein the second species or strain is         different from the first species or strain, whereby the         propagator cell is capable of being infected by phage of said         first type for propagation of phage therein.

In an example, the genome of the propagator cell (second cell in the method of the invention) comprises an exogenous nucleotide sequence that encodes the receptor, wherein wild-type cells of the species or strain of the cell do not comprise said nucleotide sequence.

-   -   20. The propagator cell of Statement 19, wherein the receptor         comprises a protein that is encoded by an expressible nucleotide         sequence comprised by the genome of the propagator cell, wherein         wild-type cells of the same species or strain as the propagator         cell do not comprise said expressible nucleotide sequence.     -   21. The propagator cell of Statement 19, wherein the receptor         comprises a sugar moiety that is the product of the action of         one or more enzymes in the propagator cell, wherein the genome         of the propagator cell comprises one or expressible nucleotide         sequences encoding said one or more enzymes, wherein wild-type         cells of the same species or strain as the propagator cell do         not comprise said expressible nucleotide sequence(s).     -   22. The propagator cell of Statement 19, wherein the receptor         comprises a teichoic acid moiety that is the product of the         action of one or more enzymes in the propagator cell, wherein         the genome of the propagator cell comprises one or expressible         nucleotide sequences encoding said one or more enzymes, wherein         wild-type cells of the same species or strain as the propagator         cell do not comprise said expressible nucleotide sequence(s).     -   23. The propagator cell of Statement 22, wherein the enzyme(s)         are selected from TarO, TarA, TarB, TarF, TarK, and TarL (or a         homologue thereof expressed by cells of the host and/or second         cells).     -   24. The propagator cell of any one of Statements 19 to 23 in         combination with phage of said first type.     -   25. The propagator cell of any one of Statements 19 to 24,         wherein the cell comprises one or more prophage of said first         type (eg, chromosomally integrated in the propagator cell).     -   26. The propagator cell of any one of Statements 19 to 25,         wherein the propagator cell is a gram-negative bacterial cell         and optionally the host cells are gram-negative bacterial cells.     -   27. The propagator cell of any one of Statements 19 to 25,         wherein the propagator cell is a gram-positive bacterial cell         and optionally the host cells are gram-positive bacterial cells.     -   28. A population of propagator cells according to any one of         Statements 19 to 27, optionally comprised in a fermentation         vessel for culturing the propagator cells and propagating phage         of said first type.     -   29. The propagator cell or population of any one of Statements         19 to 28, wherein each propagator cell is a second cell as         defined in any one of Statements 1 to 18.     -   30. The propagator cell or population of any one of Statements         19 to 28, wherein each host cells is a host cell as defined in         any one of Statements 1 to 18.     -   31. The propagator cell or population of any one of Statements         19 to 28, wherein the phage are phage as defined in any one of         Statements 1 to 18.     -   32. A method of treating or preventing a disease or condition in         a human or animal subject, the disease or condition being         mediated by host cells comprised by the subject (eg, comprised         by the gut of the subject), the method comprising administering         propagator cells to the subject (eg, to populate the gut of the         subject), wherein the propagator cells are according to any one         of Statements 19 to 31, wherein the propagator cells produce         phage and phage infect host cells in the patient (eg, in the gut         thereof), thereby killing host cells or inhibiting growth or         proliferation of host cells in the subject, whereby the disease         or condition is treated or prevented.     -   33. The method of Statement 32, wherein the propagator cells are         Lactobacillus (eg, L reuteri) cells.     -   34. The method of Statement 32 or 33, wherein the phage encode         anti-host cell crRNAs or gRNAs that guide Cas in the host cells         to modify (eg, cut) host cell DNA, thereby carrying out said         killing or inhibiting.

Concepts

The invention also provides the following Concepts:

-   -   1. A method of producing a population of phage, wherein the         phage are of a first type capable of infecting cells of a first         bacterial species or strain (host cells) by binding a         cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said species or         strain, the method comprising         -   (a) Providing a population of second bacterial cells             comprising the receptor on the surface thereof, wherein the             second cells are of a second species or strain, wherein the             second species or strain is different from the first species             or strain;         -   (b) Infecting the second cells with phage of said first             type;         -   (c) Propagating the phage in the second cells, thereby             producing the population of phage; and         -   (d) Optionally isolating phage of said population.     -   2. A method of producing a population of transduction particles         comprising nucleic acid packaged by phage coat proteins, wherein         the particles are capable of infecting cells of a first         bacterial species or strain (host cells) by binding a         cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said species or         strain, whereby host cells are transduced with the nucleic acid,         the method comprising         -   (a) Providing a population of second bacterial cells             comprising the receptor on the surface thereof, wherein the             second cells are of a second species or strain, wherein the             second species or strain is different from the first species             or strain, and wherein the second cells comprise DNA that is             capable of producing copies of said nucleic acid;         -   (b) Infecting the second cells with phage by binding the             phage to the receptor comprised by the second bacterial             cells;         -   (c) Propagating the phage in the second cells, wherein phage             coat proteins are produced that package copies of said             nucleic acid, thereby producing the population of particles;             and         -   (d) Optionally isolating particles of said population.

In an example, the nucleic acid comprised by the particles is DNA. In an example, the nucleic acid is RNA. In an example, the phage used to infect the second cells in step (b) are helper phage, optionally that are different from the transduction particles (when the transduction particles are phage). Optionally, the helper phage are defective for self-replication in the second cells.

For example, the DNA comprised by the second cells is comprised by chromosomal DNA of each second cell. In another example, the DNA is comprised by one or more episomes (eg, plasmids) comprised by each second cell.

“Transduction particles” may be phage or smaller than phage and are particles that are capable of transducing nucleic acid (eg, encoding an antibiotic or component thereof, such as a CRISPR array) into host bacterial cells.

The particles comprise phage coat proteins and optionally other phage structural proteins encoded by the phage used in step (b). Examples of structural proteins are phage proteins selected from one, more or all of the major head and tail proteins, the portal protein, tail fibre proteins, and minor tail proteins.

The particles comprise nucleic acid (eg, DNA, such as DNA encoding the array or antibiotic), wherein the nucleic acid comprises a packaging signal sequence operable with proteins encoded by the phage of step (b) to package the nucleic acid or copies thereof into transduction particles that are capable of infecting host cells.

In an example, each transduction particle is a non-self replicative transduction particle. A “non-self replicative transduction particle” refers to a particle, (eg, a phage or phage-like particle; or a particle produced from a genomic island (eg, a S aureus pathogenicity island (SaPI)) or a modified version thereof) capable of delivering a nucleic acid molecule of the particle (eg, encoding an antibacterial agent or component) into a bacterial cell, but does not package its own replicated genome into the transduction particle.

Optionally, the nucleic acid of each particle comprises a modified genomic island. Optionally, the genomic island is an island that is naturally found in bacterial cells of the host species or strain. In an example, the genomic island is selected from the group consisting of a SaPI, a SaPI1, a SaPI2, a SaPIbov1 and a SaPibov2 genomic island. Optionally, the nucleic acid of each particle comprises a modified pathogenicity island. Optionally, the pathogenicity island is an island that is naturally found in bacterial cells of the first species or strain, eg, a Staphylococcus SaPI or a Vibro PLE or a P. aeruginosa pathogenicity island (eg, a PAPI or a PAGI, eg, PAPI-1, PAGI-5, PAGI-6, PAGI-7, PAGI-8, PAGI-9 or PAGI-10). Optionally, the pathogenicity island is a SaPI (S aureus pathogenicity island).

Optionally, the transcription of transduction particle nucleic acid is under the control of an inducible promoter, for transcription of copies of the antibacterial agent or component or array in a host cell. This may be useful, for example, to control switching on of the antibacterial activity or production of anti-host cell crRNAs for use against target bacterial cells, such as in an environment (eg, soil or water) or in an industrial culture or fermentation container containing the target cells. For example, the host cells may be useful in an industrial process (eg, for fermentation, eg, in the brewing or dairy industry) and the induction enables the process to be controlled (eg, stopped or reduced) by using the antibacterial agent or crRNAs against the host bacteria.

-   -   3. The method of Concept 2, wherein the particles are         non-replicative transduction particles or phage.     -   4. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the phage or         particles comprise a nucleotide sequence encoding crRNAs (or         single guide RNAs) that are operable with Cas in bacteria of         said host cell strain or species to form an active CRISPR/Cas         system that is capable of targeting one or more protospacer         nucleotide sequences, wherein each target sequence is comprised         by the genome of said host cells, whereby the crRNAs (or gRNAs)         guide Cas in host cells to modify (optionally cut) the target         sequence(s), thereby killing host cells or reducing host cell         population growth.     -   5. The method of Concept 4, wherein when infected by the phage,         the second cells do not comprise said active CRISPR/Cas system.     -   6. The method of Concept 4 or 5, wherein the genome of each         second bacterial cell does not comprise a said target sequence.     -   7. The method of any one of Concepts 4 to 6, wherein         -   (a) Cas (optionally Cas3, 9, cpfl and/or CASCADE Cas) of             said second cells is not operable with said crRNAs (or             gRNAs);         -   (b) tracrRNA of said second cells is not operable with said             crRNAs; and/or         -   (c) said second cells are not operable to produce said             crRNAs from said crRNA-encoding nucleotide sequence (or are             not operable to produce said gRNAs from said gRNA-encoding             nucleotide sequence).     -   8. The method of any one of Concepts 4 to 7, wherein the crRNAs         (or gRNAs) comprise repeat sequences that are not operable with         Cas of the second cells (optionally Cas3, 9, cpfl and/or CASCADE         Cas of the second cells).     -   9. The method of any one of Concepts 4 to 8, wherein said         nucleotide sequence is operably connected with a promoter for         transcription of crRNAs (or gRNAs) in bacteria of said host         species or strain, but not in said second species or strain.     -   10. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein         -   (a) the phage or particles comprise a nucleotide sequence             encoding crRNAs (or single guide RNAs) that are operable             with Cas in bacteria of said host cell strain or species to             form an active CRISPR/Cas system that is capable of             targeting one or more protospacer nucleotide sequences,             wherein each target sequence is comprised by the genome of             said host cells, whereby the crRNAs (or gRNAs) guide Cas in             host cells to modify (optionally cut) the target             sequence(s), thereby killing host cells or reducing host             cell population growth;         -   (b) the host and second cells are of the same species             (optionally E coli strains); and         -   (c) the genome of each second bacterial cell does not             comprise a said target sequence, wherein the first and             second cells are different strains of the same species.     -   11. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein bacteria of         said host species or strain comprise an anti-phage toxin or         mechanism for killing or reducing the propagation of phage of         said first type or particles that infect host bacteria, wherein         the second bacteria do not comprise said toxin or mechanism.     -   12. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein bacteria of         said host species or strain comprise a CRISPR/Cas system that is         active for killing or reducing the propagation of phage of said         first type or particles that infect host bacteria, wherein the         second bacteria do not comprise said system.     -   13. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the second         bacterial cells are engineered to produce the receptor, wherein         wild-type bacteria of said second species or strain do not         produce said receptor.     -   14. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the phage or         particles comprise an origin of replication that is operable in         said second cells and in cells of said first species or strain.     -   15. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the second         cells are E coli cells.     -   16. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the first and         second cells are of the same species (optionally E coli         strains).     -   17. The method of Concept 16, wherein the strain of host cells         is a human pathogenic strain and the second cell strain is not         human pathogenic strain.     -   18. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the second         cells are cells of a lower hazard category (optionally Hazard         Group 1 or 2) compared to cells of the host species or strain         (optionally Hazard Group 3 or 4).     -   19. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the receptor is         selected from lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids (optionally a         ManNAc(β1 →4)GlcNAc disaccharide with one to three glycerol         phosphates attached to the C4 hydroxyl of the ManNAc residue         followed by a long chain of glycerol- or ribitol phosphate         repeats), proteins and flagella.     -   20. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the receptor         comprises an O-antigen of the host cells.     -   21. The method of any preceding Concept, wherein the phage or         particles are operable to express an endolysin or holin in         second cells, optionally when phage or particles replicate in         second cells.     -   22. A cell (propagator cell) for propagating phage or         transduction particles comprising nucleic acid packaged by phage         coat proteins, wherein the phage or particles are of a first         type capable of infecting cells of a first bacterial species or         strain (host cells) by binding a cell-surface receptor comprised         by bacteria of said species or strain, the propagator cell         comprising the receptor on the surface thereof, wherein the         propagator cell is of a second species or strain, wherein the         second species or strain is different from the first species or         strain, whereby the propagator cell is capable of being infected         by phage of said first type or said particles for propagation of         phage or particles respectively therein.     -   23. The propagator cell of Concept 22, wherein the receptor         comprises a protein that is encoded by an expressible nucleotide         sequence comprised by the genome of the propagator cell, wherein         wild-type cells of the same species or strain as the propagator         cell do not comprise said expressible nucleotide sequence.     -   24. The propagator cell of Concept 22, wherein the receptor         comprises a sugar moiety that is the product of the action of         one or more enzymes in the propagator cell, wherein the genome         of the propagator cell comprises one or expressible nucleotide         sequences encoding said one or more enzymes, wherein wild-type         cells of the same species or strain as the propagator cell do         not comprise said expressible nucleotide sequence(s).     -   25. The propagator cell of Concept 22, wherein the receptor         comprises a teichoic acid moiety that is the product of the         action of one or more enzymes in the propagator cell, wherein         the genome of the propagator cell comprises one or expressible         nucleotide sequences encoding said one or more enzymes, wherein         wild-type cells of the same species or strain as the propagator         cell do not comprise said expressible nucleotide sequence(s).     -   26. The propagator cell of Concept 25, wherein the enzyme(s) are         selected from TarO, TarA, TarB, TarF, TarK, and TarL (or a         homologue thereof expressed by cells of the host and/or second         cells).     -   27. The propagator cell of any one of Concepts 22 to 26 in         combination with phage of said first type or a said transduction         particle.     -   28. The propagator cell of any one of Concepts 22 to 27, wherein         the cell comprises one or more prophage of said first type         (optionally chromosomally integrated in the propagator cell) or         DNA that is capable of producing copies of said nucleic acid of         the transducing particles (optionally chromosomally integrated         in the propagator cell).     -   29. The propagator cell of any one of Concepts 22 to 28, wherein         the propagator cell is a gram-negative bacterial cell and         optionally the host cells are gram-negative bacterial cells.     -   30. The propagator cell of any one of Concepts 22 to 28, wherein         the propagator cell is a gram-positive bacterial cell and         optionally the host cells are gram-positive bacterial cells.     -   31. A population of propagator cells according to any one of         Concepts 22 to 30, optionally comprised in a fermentation vessel         for culturing the propagator cells and propagating phage of said         first type or said transduction particles.     -   32. The propagator cell or population of any one of Concepts 22         to 31, wherein each propagator cell is a second cell as defined         in any one of Concepts 1 to 21.     -   33. The propagator cell or population of any one of Concepts 22         to 31, wherein each host cells is a host cell as defined in any         one of Concepts 1 to 21.     -   34. The propagator cell or population of any one of Concepts 22         to 31, wherein the phage or particles are phage or particles as         defined in any one of Concepts 1 to 21.     -   35. A method of treating or preventing a disease or condition in         a human or animal subject, the disease or condition being         mediated by host cells comprised by the subject (optionally         comprised by the gut of the subject), the method comprising         administering propagator cells to the subject (optionally to         populate the gut of the subject), wherein the propagator cells         are according to any one of Concepts 22 to 34, wherein the         propagator cells produce phage or transduction partiles and         phage or particles respectively infect host cells in the patient         (optionally in the gut thereof), thereby killing host cells or         inhibiting growth or proliferation of host cells in the subject,         whereby the disease or condition is treated or prevented.     -   36. The method of Concept 35, wherein the propagator cells are         Lactobacillus (optionally L reuteri) cells.     -   37. The method of Concept 35 or 36, wherein the phage encode         anti-host cell crRNAs or gRNAs that guide Cas in the host cells         to modify (optionally cut) host cell DNA, thereby carrying out         said killing or inhibiting.

EXAMPLE 1 Engineering of Production Strain to Become Susceptible to Helper Phage Summary:

We engineered a production strain of bacteria (in this case an E coli production strain) to express a phage receptor rendering the strain susceptible to infection by a helper phage. The production bacteria harboured a vector containing a CRISPR array and a phage packaging site so that the vector could be packaged in cells that had been infected by the helper (but not in cells that are not so infected), thereby enabling use of the bacteria as a production strain for phage-like particles encoding crRNAs. We further showed that a lysate produced by such production strain contains phage-like particles that could be used to deliver the CRISPR array to other related E coli target populations. Here we call the vectors CRISPR Guided Vectors (CGVs™)

Advantageously, to produce CGV-charged phage-like particles (CGV-PLP) targeting a specific bacterial population, it may be beneficial to produce the CGV-PLPs in a strain related to the target strain, for example to produce CGV-PLPs that avoid host defence mechanisms in the target strain. For example, modification of the DNA of CGV-PLPs by methyltransferases in the production bacteria can be useful to shield the DNA against restriction modification once the PLP subsequently infects the target cells where the species or strains of the production and target bacteria are the same or closely related (or at any rate comprise common methyltranferases). By adapting the production strain as per the invention to display a surface receptor, the invention enables PLP production in a strain that may display beneficial DNA modification against restriction modification subsequently by the target bacteria. Usefully, the protospacer sequence(s) to which crRNAs of the PLP are targeted in the target bacteria may be deleted or naturally absent in the genome of the production bacteria, such that Cas-mediated cutting of the production bacteria genomes does not take place during the production of the PLPs.

Methods and Results:

As a production strain, we used the Escherichia coli strain MG1655 that was transformed with a plasmid expressing the receptor for helper phage M13KO7 (FIG. 1_X) while a strain line not receiving the receptor (FIG. 1_Y) served as control. The receptor was a F-pilus expressed from the plasmid pCJ105 obtained from New England Biolabs. Both strains were transformed with a CGV (FIG. 1_3) and infected with helper phage M13KO7 for the production of CGV-PLP.

In line X, CGV-PLP lysate was produced due to presence of receptor while in line Y no lysate was produced (FIG. 1_4). The resulting lysate was shown to be able to deliver the CGV to different target populations related to the production strain and harbouring the phage receptor (FIG. 1_5 and FIG. 2). The control strain line did not produce CGV-PLP that was able to deliver the CGV to the target population (FIG. 2).

TABLE 5 HAZARD GROUPS Group 1 Unlikely to cause human disease. Group 2 Can cause human disease and may be a hazard to employees; it is unlikely to spread to the community and there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available. Group 3 Can cause severe human disease and may be a serious hazard to employees; it may spread to the community, but there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available. Group 4 Causes severe human disease and is a serious hazard to employees; it is likely to spread to the community and there is usually no effective prophylaxis or treatment available.

TABLE 6 THE APPROVED LIST OF BIOLOGICAL AGENTS (HSE CLASSIFICATION) BACTERIA HAZARD GROUP Arcobacter butzleri (formerly 2 Campylobacter butzleri) Actinobacillus 2 actinomycetemcomitans Actinomadura madurae 2 Actinomadura pelletieri 2 Actinomyces gerencseriae 2 Actinomyces israelii 2 Actinomyces pyogenes 2 Actinomyces spp 2 Alcaligenes spp 2 Arcanobacterium haemolyticum 2 (Corynebacterium haemolyticum) Arcanobacterium pyogenes (formerly 2 Actinomyces pyogenes) Bacillus anthracis 3 Bacillus cereus 2 Bacteroides fragilis 2 Bacteroides spp 2 Bartonella bacilliformis 2 Bartonella quintana (Rochalimaea 2 quintana) Bartonella spp (Rochalimaea spp) 2 Bordetella bronchiseptica 2 Bordetella parapertussis 2 Bordetella pertussis 2 Bordetella spp 2 Borrelia burgdorferi 2 Borrelia duttonii 2 Borrelia recurrentis 2 Borrelia spp 2 Brachispira spp (formerly Serpulina 2 spp) Brucella abortus 3 Brucella canis 3 Brucella melitensis 3 Brucella suis 3 Burkholderia cepacia 2 Burkholderia mallei (formerly 3 Pseudomonas mallei) Burkholderia pseudomallei (formerly 3 Pseudomonas pseudomallei) Campylobacter fetus 2 Campylobacter jejuni 2 Campylobacter spp 2 Cardiobacterium hominis 2 Chlamydophila pneumoniae 2 Chlamydophila psittaci (avian strains) 3 Chlamydophila psittaci (non-avian 2 strains) Chlamydophila trachomatis 2 Clostridium botulinum 2 Clostridium perfringens 2 Clostridium spp 2 Clostridium tetani 2 Corynebacterium diphtheriae 2 Corynebacterium haemolyticum 2 Corynebacterium minutissimum 2 Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis 2 Corynebacterium pyogenes 2 Corynebacterium spp 2 Corynebacterium ulcerans 2 Coxiella burnetti 3 Edwardsiella tarda 2 Ehrlichia sennetsu (Rickettsia 3 sennetsu) Ehrlichia spp 2 Eikenella corrodens 2 Elizabethkingia meningoseptica 2 (formerly Flavobacterium meningosepticum) Enterobacter aerogenes/cloacae 2 Enterobacter spp 2 Enterococcus spp 2 Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 2 Escherichia coli (with the exception of 2 non-pathogenic strains) Escherichia coli, verocytotoxigenic 3 strains (eg O157:H7 or O103) Flavobacterium meningosepticum 2 Fluoribacter bozemanae (formerly 2 Legionella) Francisella tularensis (Type A) 3 Francisella tularensis (Type B) 2 Fusobacterium necrophorum 2 Fusobacterium spp 2 Gardnerella vaginalis 2 Haemophilus ducreyi 2 Haemophilus influenzae 2 Haemophilus spp 2 Helicobacter pylori 2 Klebsiella oxytoca 2 Klebsiella pneumoniae 2 Klebsiella spp 2 Legionella pneumophila 2 Legionella spp 2 Leptospira interrogans (all serovars) 2 Listeria ivanovii 2 Listeria monocytogenes 2 Moraxella catarrhalis 2 Morganella morganii 2 Mycobacterium africanum 3 Mycobacterium avium/intracellulare 2 Mycobacterium bovis 3 Mycobacterium bovis (BCG strain) 2 Mycobacterium chelonae 2 Mycobacterium fortuitum 2 Mycobacterium kansasii 2 Mycobacterium leprae 3 Mycobacterium malmoense 3 Mycobacterium marinum 2 Mycobacterium microti 3 Mycobacterium paratuberculosis 2 Mycobacterium scrofulaceum 2 Mycobacterium simiae 2 Mycobacterium szulgai 3 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 3 Mycobacterium ulcerans 3 Mycobacterium xenopi 2 Mycoplasma caviae 2 Mycoplasma hominis 2 Mycoplasma pneumoniae 2 Neisseria gonorrhoeae 2 Neisseria meningitidis 2 Nocardia asteroids 2 Nocardia braziliensis 2 Nocardia farcinica 2 Nocardia nova 2 Nocardia otitidiscaviarum 2 Pasteurella multocida 2 Pasteurella spp 2 Peptostreptococcus anaerobius 2 Peptostreptococcus spp 2 Plesiomonas shigelloides 2 Porphyromonas spp 2 Prevotella spp 2 Proteus mirabilis 2 Proteus penneri 2 Proteus vulgaris 2 Providencia alcalifaciens 2 Providencia rettgeri 2 Providencia spp 2 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 2 Pseudomonas mallei 3 Pseudomonas pseudomallei 3 Rhodococcus equi 2 Rickettsia akari 3 Rickettsia canada 3 Rickettsia conorii 3 Rickettsia montana 3 Rickettsia mooseri 3 Rickettsia prowazekii 3 Rickettsia rickettsii 3 Rickettsia sennetsu 3 Rickettsia spp 3 Rickettsia tsutsugamushi 3 Rickettsia typhi (Rickettsia mooseri) 3 Rochalimaea quintana 2 Rochalimaea spp 2 Salmonella arizonae 2 Salmonella enterica serovar 2 enteritidis Salmonella enterica serovar 2 typhimurium 2 Salmonella paratyphi A 3 Salmonella paratyphi B/java 3 Salmonella paratyphi C/Choleraesuis 3 Serovars other than arizonae, enterica serovar enteritidis, enterica serovar typhimurium 2, paratyphi A, Salmonella spp 2 B, C, typhi Serovars arizonae, enterica serovar enteritidis, enterica serovar typhimurium 2, paratyphi A, B, C, Salmonella typhi 3 typhi Serpulina spp 2 Shigella boydii 2 Shigella dysenteriae (other than Type 1) 2 Shigella dysenteriae (Type 1) 3 Shigella flexneri 2 Shigella sonnei 2 Staphylococcus aureus 2 Streptobacillus moniliformis 2 Streptococcus agalactiae 2 Streptococcus dysgalactiaeequisimilis 2 Streptococcus pneumoniae 2 Streptococcus pyogenes 2 Streptococcus spp 2 Streptococcus suis 2 Treponema carateum 2 Treponema pallidum 2 Treponema pertenue 2 Treponema spp 2 Ureaplasma parvum 2 Ureaplasma urealyticum 2 Vibrio cholerae (including El Tor) 2 Vibrio parahaemolyticus 2 Vibrio spp 2 Yersinia enterocolitica 2 Yersinia pestis 3 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis 2 Yersinia spp 2

TABLE 7 Example Bacteria Optionally, the host cells are selected from this Table and/or the second cells are selected from this Table (wherein the host and second cells are of a different species; or of the same species but are a different strain or the host cells are engineered but the second cells are wild-type or vice versa). Abiotrophia Acidocella Actinomyces Alkalilimnicola Aquaspirillum Abiotrophia defectiva Acidocella aminolytica Actinomyces bovis Alkalilimnicola ehrlichii Aquaspirillum polymorphum Acaricomes Acidocella facilis Actinomyces denticolens Alkaliphilus Aquaspirillum Acaricomes phytoseiuli Acidomonas Actinomyces europaeus Alkaliphilus oremlandii putridiconchylium Acetitomaculum Acidomonas methanolica Actinomyces georgiae Alkaliphilus transvaalensis Aquaspirillum serpens Acetitomaculum ruminis Acidothermus Actinomyces gerencseriae Allochromatium Aquimarina Acetivibrio Acidothermus cellulolyticus Actinomyces Allochromatium vinosum Aquimarina latercula Acetivibrio cellulolyticus Acidovorax hordeovulneris Alloiococcus Arcanobacterium Acetivibrio ethanolgignens Acidovorax anthurii Actinomyces howellii Alloiococcus otitis Arcanobacterium Acetivibrio multivorans Acidovorax caeni Actinomyces hyovaginalis Allokutzneria haemolyticum Acetoanaerobium Acidovorax cattleyae Actinomyces israelii Allokutzneria albata Arcanobacterium pyogenes Acetoanaerobium noterae Acidovorax citrulli Actinomyces johnsonii Altererythrobacter Archangium Acetobacter Acidovorax defluvii Actinomyces meyeri Altererythrobacter ishigakiensis Archangium gephyra Acetobacter aceti Acidovorax delafieldii Actinomyces naeslundii Altermonas Arcobacter Acetobacter cerevisiae Acidovorax facilis Actinomyces neuii Altermonas haloplanktis Arcobacter butzleri Acetobacter cibinongensis Acidovorax konjaci Actinomyces odontolyticus Altermonas macleodii Arcobacter cryaerophilus Acetobacter estunensis Acidovorax temperans Actinomyces oris Alysiella Arcobacter halophilus Acetobacter fabarum Acidovorax valerianellae Actinomyces radingae Alysiella crassa Arcobacter nitrofigilis Acetobacter ghanensis Acinetobacter Actinomyces slackii Alysiella filiformis Arcobacter skirrowii Acetobacter indonesiensis Acinetobacter baumannii Actinomyces turicensis Aminobacter Arhodomonas Acetobacter lovaniensis Acinetobacter baylyi Actinomyces viscosus Aminobacter aganoensis Arhodomonas aquaeolei Acetobacter malorum Acinetobacter bouvetii Actinoplanes Aminobacter aminovorans Arsenophonus Acetobacter nitrogenifigens Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Actinoplanes auranticolor Aminobacter niigataensis Arsenophonus Acetobacter oeni Acinetobacter gerneri Actinoplanes brasiliensis Aminobacterium nasoniae Acetobacter orientalis Acinetobacter haemolyticus Actinoplanes consettensis Aminobacterium mobile Arthrobacter Acetobacter orleanensis Acinetobacter johnsonii Actinoplanes deccanensis Aminomonas Arthrobacter agilis Acetobacter pasteurianus Acinetobacter junii Actinoplanes derwentensis Aminomonas paucivorans Arthrobacter albus Acetobacter pornorurn Acinetobacter lwoffi Actinoplanes digitatis Ammoniphilus Arthrobacter aurescens Acetobacter senegalensis Acinetobacter parvus Actinoplanes durhamensis Ammoniphilus oxalaticus Arthrobacter chlorophenolicus Acetobacter xylinus Acinetobacter radioresistens Actinoplanes ferrugineus Ammoniphilus oxalivorans Arthrobacter citreus Acetobacterium Acinetobacter schindleri Actinoplanes globisporus Amphibacillus Arthrobacter crystallopoietes Acetobacterium bakii Acinetobacter soli Actinoplanes humidus Amphibacillus xylanus Arthrobacter cumminsii Acetobacterium carbinolicum Acinetobacter tandoii Actinoplanes italicus Amphritea Arthrobacter globiformis Acetobacterium dehalogenans Acinetobacter tjernbergiae Actinoplanes liguriensis Amphritea balenae Arthrobacter Acetobacterium fimetarium Acinetobacter towneri Actinoplanes lobatus Amphritea japonica histidinolovorans Acetobacterium malicum Acinetobacter ursingii Actinoplanes missouriensis Amycolatopsis Arthrobacter ilicis Acetobacterium paludosum Acinetobacter venetianus Actinoplanes palleronii Amycolatopsis alba Arthrobacter luteus Acetobacterium tundrae Acrocarpospora Actinoplanes philippinensis Amycolatopsis albidoflavus Arthrobacter methylotrophus Acetobacterium wieringae Acrocarpospora corrugata Actinoplanes rectilineatus Amycolatopsis azurea Arthrobacter mysorens Acetobacterium woodii Acrocarpospora Actinoplanes regularis Amycolatopsis coloradensis Arthrobacter nicotianae Acetofilamentum macrocephala Actinoplanes Amycolatopsis lurida Arthrobacter nicotinovorans Acetofilamentum rigidum Acrocarpospora pleiomorpha teichomyceticus Amycolatopsis mediterranei Arthrobacter oxydans Acetohalobium Actibacter Actinoplanes utahensis Amycolatopsis rifamycinica Arthrobacter pascens Acetohalobium arabaticum Actibacter sediminis Actinopolyspora Amycolatopsis rubida Arthrobacter Acetomicrobium Actinoalloteichus Actinopolyspora halophila Amycolatopsis sulphurea phenanthrenivorans Acetomicrobium faecale Actinoalloteichus Actinopolyspora mortivallis Amycolatopsis tolypomycina Arthrobacter Acetomicrobium flavidum cyanogriseus Actinosynnema Anabaena polychromogenes Acetonema Actinoalloteichus Actinosynnema mirum Anabaena cylindrica Atrhrobacter protophormiae Acetonema longum hymeniacidonis Actinotalea Anabaena flos-aquae Arthrobacter Acetothermus Actinoalloteichus spitiensis Actinotalea fermentans Anabaena variabilis psychrolactophilus Acetothermus paucivorans Actinobaccillus Aerococcus Anaeroarcus Arthrobacter ramosus Acholeplasma Actinobacillus capsulatus Aerococcus sanguinicola Anaeroarcus burkinensis Arthrobacter sulfonivorans Acholeplasma axanthum Actinobacillus delphinicola Aerococcus urinae Anaerobaculum Arthrobacter sulfureus Acholeplasma brassicae Actinobacillus hominis Aerococcus urinaeequi Anaerobaculum mobile Arthrobacter uratoxydans Acholeplasma cavigenitalium Actinobacillus indolicus Aerococcus urinaehominis Anaerobiospirillum Arthrobacter ureafaciens Acholeplasma equifetale Actinobacillus lignieresii Aerococcus viridans Anaerobiospirillum Arthrobacter viscosus Acholeplasma granularum Actinobacillus minor Aeromicrobium succiniciproducens Arthrobacter woluwensis Acholeplasma hippikon Actinobacillus muris Aeromicrobium erythreum Anaerobiospirillum thomasii Asaia Acholeplasma laidlawii Actinobacillus Aeromonas Anaerococcus Asaia bogorensis Acholeplasma modicum pleuropneumoniae Aeromonas Anaerococcus hydrogenalis Asanoa Acholeplasma morum Actinobacillus porcinus allosaccharophila Anaerococcus lactolyticus Asanoa ferruginea Acholeplasma multilocale Actinobacillus rossii Aeromonas bestiarum Anaerococcus prevotii Asticcacaulis Acholeplasma oculi Actinobacillus scotiae Aeromonas caviae Anaerococcus tetradius Asticcacaulis biprosthecium Acholeplasma palmae Actinobacillus seminis Aeromonas encheleia Anaerococcus vaginalis Asticcacaulis excentricus Acholeplasma parvum Actinobacillus succinogenes Aeromonas Anaerofustis Atopobacter Acholeplasma pleciae Actinobaccillus suis enteropelogenes Anaerofustis stercorihominis Atopobacter phocae Acholeplasma vituli Actinobacillus ureae Aeromonas eucrenophila Anaeromusa Atopobium Achromobacter Actinobaculum Aeromonas ichthiosmia Anaeromusa acidaminophila Atopobium fossor Achromobacter denitrificans Actinobaculum massiliense Aeromonas jandaei Anaeromyxobacter Atopobium minutum Achromobacter insolitus Actinobaculum schaalii Aeromonas media Anaeromyxobacter Atopobium parvulum Achromobacter piechaudii Actinobaculum suis Aeromonas popoffii dehalogenans Atopobium rimae Achromobacter ruhlandii Actinomyces urinale Aeromonas sobria Anaerorhabdus Atopobium vaginae Achromobacter spanius Actinocatenispora Aeromonas veronii Anaerorhabdus furcosa Aureobacterium Acidaminobacter Actinocatenispora rupis Agrobacterium Anaerosinus Aureobacterium barkeri Acidaminobacter Actinocatenispora Agrobacterium Anaerosinus glycerini Aurobacterium hydrogenoformans thailandica gelatinovorum Anaerovirgula Aurobacterium liquefaciens Acidaminococcus Actinocatenispora sera Agrococcus Anaerovirgula multivorans Avibacterium Acidaminococcus fermentans Actinocorallia Agrococcus citreus Ancalomicrobium Avibacterium avium Acidaminococcus intestini Actinocorallia aurantiaca Agrococcus jenensis Ancalomicrobium adetum Avibacterium gallinarum Acidicaldus Actinocorallia aurea Agromonas Ancylobacter Avibacterium paragallinarum Acidicaldus organivorans Actinocorallia cavernae Agromonas oligotrophica Ancylobacter aquaticus Avibacterium volantium Acidimicrobium Actinocorallia glomerata Agromyces Aneurinibacillus Azoarcus Acidimicrobium ferrooxidans Actinocorallia herbida Agromyces fucosus Aneurinibacillus aneurinilyticus Azoarcus indigens Acidiphilium Actinocorallia libanotica Agromyces hippuratus Aneurinibacillus migulanus Azoarcus tolulyticus Acidiphilium acidophilum Actinocorallia longicatena Agromyces luteolus Aneurinibacillus Azoarcus toluvorans Acidiphilium angustum Actinomadura Agromyces mediolanus thermoaerophilus Azohydromonas Acidiphilium cryptum Actinomadura alba Agromyces ramosus Angiococcus Azohydromonas australica Acidiphilium multivorum Actinomadura atramentaria Agromyces rhizospherae Angiococcus disciformis Azohydromonas lata Acidiphilium organovorum Actinomadura Akkermansia Angulomicrobium Azomonas Acidiphilium rubrum bangladeshensis Akkermansia muciniphila Angulomicrobium tetraedrale Azomonas agilis Acidisoma Actinomadura catellatispora Albidiferax Anoxybacillus Azomonas insignis Acidisoma sibiricum Actinomadura chibensis Albidiferax ferrireducens Anoxybacillus pushchinoensis Azomonas macrocytogenes Acidisoma tundrae Actinomadura chokoriensis Albidovulum Aquabacterium Azorhizobium Acidisphaera Actinomadura citrea Albidovulum inexpectatum Aquabacterium commune Azorhizobium caulinodans Acidisphaera rubrifaciens Actinomadura coerulea Alcaligenes Aquabacterium parvum Azorhizophilus Acidithiobacillus Actinomadura echinospora Alcaligenes denitrificans Azorhizophilus paspali Acidithiobacillus albertensis Actinomadura fibrosa Alcaligenes faecalis Azospirillum Acidithiobacillus caldus Actinomadura formosensis Alcanivorax Azospirillum brasilense Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans Actinomadura hibisca Alcanivorax borkumensis Azospirillum halopraeferens Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans Actinomadura kijaniata Alcanivorax jadensis Azospirillum irakense Acidobacterium Actinomadura latina Algicola Azotobacter Acidobacterium capsulatum Actinomadura livida Algicola bacteriolytica Azotobacter beijerinckii Actinomadura Alicyclobacillus Azotobacter chroococcum luteofluorescens Alicyclobacillus Azotobacter nigricans Actinomadura macra disulfidooxidans Azotobacter salinestris Actinomadura madurae Alicyclobacillus Azotobacter vinelandii Actinomadura oligospora sendaiensis Actinomadura pelletieri Alicyclobacillus vulcanalis Actinomadura rubrobrunea Alishewanella Actinomadura rugatobispora Alishewanella fetalis Actinomadura umbrina Alkalibacillus Actinomadura Alkalibacillus verrucosospora haloalkaliphilus Actinomadura vinacea Actinomadura viridilutea Actinomadura viridis Actinomadura yumaensis Bacillus Bacteroides Bibersteinia Borrelia Brevinema [see below] Bacteroides caccae Bibersteinia trehalosi Borrelia afzelii Brevinema andersonii Bacteriovorax Bacteroides coagulans Bifidobacterium Borrelia americana Brevundimonas Bacteriovorax stolpii Bacteroides eggerthii Bifidobacterium adolescentis Borrelia burgdorferi Brevundimonas alba Bacteroides fragilis Bifidobacterium angulatum Borrelia carolinensis Brevundimonas aurantiaca Bacteroides galacturonicus Bifidobacterium animalis Borrelia coriaceae Brevundimonas diminuta Bacteroides helcogenes Bifidobacterium asteroides Borrelia garinii Brevundimonas intermedia Bacteroides ovatus Bifidobacterium bifidum Borrelia japonica Brevundimonas subvibrioides Bacteroides pectinophilus Bifidobacterium boum Bosea Brevundimonas vancanneytii Bacteroides pyogenes Bifidobacterium breve Bosea minatitlanensis Brevundimonas variabilis Bacteroides salyersiae Bifidobacterium catenulatum Bosea thiooxidans Brevundimonas vesicularis Bacteroides stercoris Bifidobacterium choerinum Brachybacterium Brochothrix Bacteroides suis Bifidobacterium coryneforme Brachybacterium Brochothrix campestris Bacteroides tectus Bifidobacterium cuniculi alimentarium Brochothrix thermosphacta Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron Bifidobacterium dentium Brachybacterium faecium Brucella Bacteroides uniformis Bifidobacterium gallicum Brachybacterium Brucella canis Bacteroides ureolyticus Bifidobacterium gallinarum paraconglomeratum Brucella neotomae Bacteroides vulgatus Bifidobacterium indicum Brachybacterium rhamnosum Bryobacter Balnearium Bifidobacterium longum Brachybacterium Bryobacter aggregatus Balnearium lithotrophicum Bifidobacterium tyrofermentans Burkholderia Balneatrix magnumBifidobacterium Brachyspira Burkholderia ambifaria Balneatrix alpica merycicum Brachyspira alvinipulli Burkholderia andropogonis Balneola Bifidobacterium minimum Brachyspira hyodysenteriae Burkholderia anthina Balneola vulgaris Bifidobacterium Brachyspira innocens Burkholderia caledonica Barnesiella pseudocatenulatum Brachyspira murdochii Burkholderia caryophylli Barnesiella viscericola Bifidobacterium Brachyspira Burkholderia cenocepacia Bartonella pseudolongum pilosicoli Burkholderia cepacia Bartonella alsatica Bifidobacterium pullorum Bradyrhizobium Burkholderia cocovenenans Bartonella bacilliformis Bifidobacterium ruminantium Bradyrhizobium canariense Burkholderia dolosa Bartonella clarridgeiae Bifidobacterium saeculare Bradyrhizobium elkanii Burkholderia fungorum Bartonella doshiae Bifidobacterium subtile Bradyrhizobium japonicum Burkholderia glathei Bartonella elizabethae Bifidobacterium Bradyrhizobium liaoningense Burkholderia glumae Bartonella grahamii thermophilum Brenneria Burkholderia graminis Bartonella henselae Bilophila Brenneria alni Burkholderia kururiensis Bartonella rochalimae Bilophila wadsworthia Brenneria nigrifluens Burkholderia multivorans Bartonella vinsonii Biostraticola Brenneria quercina Burkholderia phenazinium Bavariicoccus Biostraticola tofi Brenneria quercina Burkholderia plantarii Bavariicoccus seileri Bizionia Brenneria salicis Burkholderia pyrrocinia Bdellovibrio Bizionia argentinensis Brevibacillus Burkholderia silvatlantica Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus Blastobacter Brevibacillus agri Burkholderia stabilis Bdellovibrio exovorus Blastobacter capsulatus Brevibacillus borstelensis Burkholderia thailandensis Beggiatoa Blastobacter denitrificans Brevibacillus brevis Burkholderia tropica Beggiatoa alba Blastococcus Brevibacillus centrosporus Burkholderia unamae Beijerinckia Blastococcus aggregatus Brevibacillus choshinensis Burkholderia vietnamiensis Beijerinckia derxii Blastococcus saxobsidens Brevibacillus invocatus Buttiauxella Beijerinckia fluminensis Blastochloris Brevibacillus laterosporus Buttiauxella agrestis Beijerinckia indica Blastochloris viridis Brevibacillus parabrevis Buttiauxella brennerae Beijerinckia mobilis Blastomonas Brevibacillus reuszeri Buttiauxella ferragutiae Belliella Blastomonas natatoria Brevibacterium Buttiauxella gaviniae Belliella baltica Blastopirellula Brevibacterium abidum Buttiauxella izardii Bellilinea Blastopirellula marina Brevibacterium album Buttiauxella noackiae Bellilinea caldifistulae Blautia Brevibacterium aurantiacum Buttiauxella warmboldiae Belnapia Blautia coccoides Brevibacterium celere Butyrivibrio Belnapia moabensis Blautia hansenii Brevibacterium epidermidis Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens Bergeriella Blautia producta Brevibacterium Butyrivibrio hungatei Bergeriella denitrificans Blautia wexlerae frigoritolerans Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus Beutenbergia Bogoriella Brevibacterium halotolerans Beutenbergia cavernae Bogoriella caseilytica Brevibacterium iodinum Bordetella Brevibacterium linens Bordetella avium Brevibacterium lyticum Bordetella bronchiseptica Brevibacterium mcbrellneri Bordetella hinzii Brevibacterium otitidis Bordetella holmesii Brevibacterium oxydans Bordetella parapertussis Brevibacterium paucivorans Bordetella pertussis Brevibacterium stationis Bordetella petrii Bordetella trematum Bacillus B. acidiceler B. aminovorans B. glucanolyticus B. taeanensis B. lautus B. acidicola B. amylolyticus B. gordonae B. tequilensis B. lehensis B. acidiproducens B. andreesenii B. gottheilii B. thermantarcticus B. lentimorbus B. acidocaldarius B. aneurinilyticus B. graminis B. thermoaerophilus B. lentus B. acidoterrestris B. anthracis B. halmapalus B. thermoamylovorans B. licheniformis B. aeolius B. aquimaris B. haloalkaliphilus B. thermocatenulatus B. ligniniphilus B. aerius B. arenosi B. halochares B. thermocloacae B. litoralis B. aerophilus B. arseniciselenatis B. halodenitrificans B. thermocopriae B. locisalis B. agaradhaerens B. arsenicus B. halodurans B. thermodenitrificans B. luciferensis B. agri B. aurantiacus B. halophilus B. thermoglucosidasius B. luteolus B. aidingensis B. arvi B. halosaccharovorans B. thermolactis B. luteus B. akibai B. aryabhattai B. hemicellulosilyticus B. thermoleovorans B. macauensis B. alcalophilus B. asahii B. hemicentroti B. thermophilus B. macerans B. algicola B. atrophaeus B. herbersteinensis B. thermoruber B. macquariensis B. alginolyticus B. axarquiensis B. horikoshii B. thermosphaericus B. macyae B. alkalidiazotrophicus B. azotofixans B. horneckiae B. thiaminolyticus B. malacitensis B. alkalinitrilicus B. azotoformans B. horti B. thioparans B. mannanilyticus B. alkalisediminis B. badius B. huizhouensis B. thuringiensis B. marisflavi B. alkalitelluris B. barbaricus B. humi B. tianshenii B. marismortui B. altitudinis B. bataviensis B. hwajinpoensis B. trypoxylicola B. marmarensis B. alveayuensis B. beijingensis B. idriensis B. tusciae B. massiliensis B. alvei B. benzoevorans B. indicus B. validus B. megaterium B. amyloliquefaciens B. beringensis B. infantis B. vallismortis B. mesonae B. B. berkeleyi B. infernus B. vedderi B. methanolicus a. subsp. amyloliquefaciens B. beveridgei B. insolitus B. velezensis B. methylotrophicus B. a. subsp. plantarum B. bogoriensis B. invictae B. vietnamensis B. migulanus B. boroniphilus B. iranensis B. vireti B. mojavensis B. dipsosauri B. borstelensis B. isabeliae B. vulcani B. mucilaginosus B. drentensis B. brevis Migula B. isronensis B. wakoensis B. muralis B. edaphicus B. butanolivorans B. jeotgali B. weihenstephanensis B. murimartini B. ehimensis B. canaveralius B. kaustophilus B. xiamenensis B. mycoides B. eiseniae B. carboniphilus B. kobensis B. xiaoxiensis B. naganoensis B. enclensis B. cecembensis B. kochii B. zhanjiangensis B. nanhaiensis B. endophyticus B. cellulosilyticus B. kokeshiiformis B. peoriae B. nanhaiisediminis B. endoradicis B. centrosporus B. koreensis B. persepolensis B. nealsonii B. farraginis B. cereus B. korlensis B. persicus B. neidei B. fastidiosus B. chagannorensis B. kribbensis B. pervagus B. neizhouensis B. fengqiuensis B. chitinolyticus B. krulwichiae B. plakortidis B. niabensis B. firmus B. chondroitinus B. laevolacticus B. pocheonensis B. niacini B. flexus B. choshinensis B. larvae B. polygoni B. novalis B. foraminis B. chungangensis B. laterosporus B. polymyxa B. oceanisediminis B. fordii B. cibi B. salexigens B. popilliae B. odysseyi B. formosus B. circulans B. saliphilus B. pseudalcalophilus B. okhensis B. fortis B. clarkii B. schlegelii B. pseudofirmus B. okuhidensis B. fumarioli B. clausii B. sediminis B. pseudomycoides B. oleronius B. funiculus B. coagulans B. selenatarsenatis B. psychrodurans B. oryzaecorticis B. fusiformis B. coahuilensis B. selenitireducens B. psychrophilus B. oshimensis B. galactophilus B. cohnii B. seohaeanensis B. psychrosaccharolyticus B. pabuli B. galactosidilyticus B. composti B. shacheensis B. psychrotolerans B. pakistanensis B. galliciensis B. curdlanolyticus B. shackletonii B. pulvifaciens B. pallidus B. gelatini B. cycloheptanicus B. siamensis B. pumilus B. pallidus B. gibsonii B. cytotoxicus B. silvestris B. purgationiresistens B. panacisoli B. ginsengi B. daliensis B. simplex B. pycnus B. panaciterrae B. ginsengihumi B. decisifrondis B. siralis B. qingdaonensis B. pantothenticus B. ginsengisoli B. decolorationis B. smithii B. qingshengii B. parabrevis B. globisporus (eg, B. B. deserti B. soli B. reuszeri B. paraflexus g. subsp. Globisporus; or B. B. solimangrovi B. rhizosphaerae B. pasteurii g. subsp. Marinus) B. solisalsi B. rigui B. patagoniensis B. songklensis B. ruris B. sonorensis B. safensis B. sphaericus B. salarius B. sporothermodurans B. stearothermophilus B. stratosphericus B. subterraneus B. subtilis (eg, B. s. subsp. Inaquosorum, or B. s. subsp. Spizizenr, or B. s. subsp. Subtilis) Caenimonas Campylobacter Cardiobacterium Catenuloplanes Curtobacterium Caenimonas koreensis Campylobacter coli Cardiobacterium hominis Catenuloplanes atrovinosus Curtobacterium albidum Caldalkalibacillus Campylobacter concisus Carnimonas Catenuloplanes castaneus Curtobacterium citreus Caldalkalibacillus uzonensis Campylobacter curvus Carnimonas nigrificans Catenuloplanes crispus Caldanaerobacter Campylobacter fetus Carnobacterium Catenuloplanes indicus Caldanaerobacter subterraneus Campylobacter gracilis Carnobacterium alterfunditum Catenuloplanes japonicus Caldanaerobius Campylobacter helveticus Carnobacterium divergens Catenuloplanes nepalensis Caldanaerobius fijiensis Campylobacter hominis Carnobacterium funditum Catenuloplanes niger Caldanaerobius Campylobacter hyointestinalis Carnobacterium gallinarum Chryseobacterium polysaccharolyticus Campylobacter jejuni Carnobacterium Chryseobacterium Caldanaerobius zeae Campylobacter lari maltaromaticum balustinum Caldanaerovirga Campylobacter mucosalis Carnobacterium mobile Citrobacter Caldanaerovirga acetigignens Campylobacter rectus Carnobacterium viridans C. amalonaticus Caldicellulosiruptor Campylobacter showae Caryophanon C. braakii Caldicellulosiruptor bescii Campylobacter sputorum Caryophanon latum C. diversus Caldicellulosiruptor kristjanssonii Campylobacter upsaliensis Caryophanon tenue C. farmeri Caldicellulosiruptor owensensis Capnocytophaga Catellatospora C. freundii Capnocytophaga canimorsus Catellatospora citrea C. gillenii Capnocytophaga cynodegmi Catellatospora C. koseri Capnocytophaga gingivalis methionotrophica C. murliniae Capnocytophaga granulosa Catenococcus C. pasteurii ^([1]) Capnocytophaga haemolytica Catenococcus thiocycli C. rodentium Capnocytophaga ochracea C. sedlakii Capnocytophaga sputigena C. werkmanii C. youngae Clostridium (see below) Coccochloris Coccochloris elabens Corynebacterium Corynebacterium flavescens Corynebacterium variabile Clostridium Clostridium absonum, Clostridium aceticum, Clostridium acetireducens, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Clostridium acidisoli, Clostridium aciditolerans, Clostridium acidurici, Clostridium aerotolerans, Clostridium aestuarii, Clostridium akagii, Clostridium aldenense, Clostridium aldrichii, Clostridium algidicarni, Clostridium algidixylanolyticum, Clostridium algifaecis, Clostridium algoriphilum, Clostridium alkalicellulosi, Clostridium aminophilum, Clostridium aminovalericum, Clostridium amygdalinum, Clostridium amylolyticum, Clostridium arbusti, Clostridium arcticum, Clostridium argentinense, Clostridium asparagiforme, Clostridium aurantibutyricum, Clostridium autoethanogenum, Clostridium baratii, Clostridium barkeri, Clostridium bartlettii, Clostridium beijerinckii, Clostridium bifermentans, Clostridium bolteae, Clostridium bornimense, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium bowmanii, Clostridium bryantii, Clostridium butyricum, Clostridium cadaveris, Clostridium caenicola, Clostridium caminithermale, Clostridium carboxidivorans, Clostridium carnis, Clostridium cavendishii, Clostridium celatum, Clostridium celerecrescens, Clostridium cellobioparum, Clostridium cellulofermentans, Clostridium cellulolyticum, Clostridium cellulosi, Clostridium cellulovorans, Clostridium chartatabidum, Clostridium chauvoei, Clostridium chromiireducens, Clostridium citroniae, Clostridium clariflavum, Clostridium clostridioforme, Clostridium coccoides, Clostridium cochlearium, Clostridium colletant, Clostridium colicanis, Clostridium colinum, Clostridium collagenovorans, Clostridium cylindrosporum, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium diolis, Clostridium disporicum, Clostridium drakei, Clostridium durum, Clostridium estertheticum, Clostridium estertheticum estertheticum, Clostridium estertheticum laramiense, Clostridium fallax, Clostridium felsineum, Clostridium fervidum, Clostridium fimetarium, Clostridium formicaceticum, Clostridium frigidicarnis, Clostridium frigoris, Clostridium ganghwense, Clostridium gasigenes, Clostridium ghonii, Clostridium glycolicum, Clostridium glycyrrhizinilyticum, Clostridium grantii, Clostridium haemolyticum, Clostridium halophilum, Clostridium hastiforme, Clostridium hathewayi, Clostridium herbivorans, Clostridium hiranonis, Clostridium histolyticum, Clostridium homopropionicum, Clostridium huakuii, Clostridium hungatei, Clostridium hydrogeniformans, Clostridium hydroxybenzoicum, Clostridium hylemonae, Clostridium jejuense, Clostridium indolis, Clostridium innocuum, Clostridium intestinale, Clostridium irregulare, Clostridium isatidis, Clostridium josui, Clostridium kluyveri, Clostridium lactatifermentans, Clostridium lacusfryxellense, Clostridium laramiense, Clostridium lavalense, Clostridium lentocellum, Clostridium lentoputrescens, Clostridium leptum, Clostridium limosum, Clostridium litorale, Clostridium lituseburense, Clostridium ljungdahlii, Clostridium lortetii, Clostridium lundense, Clostridium magnum, Clostridium malenominatum, Clostridium mangenotii, Clostridium mayombei, Clostridium methoxybenzovorans, Clostridium methylpentosum, Clostridium neopropionicum, Clostridium nexile, Clostridium nitrophenolicum, Clostridium novyi, Clostridium oceanicum, Clostridium orbiscindens, Clostridium oroticum, Clostridium oxalicum, Clostridium papyrosolvens, Clostridium paradoxum, Clostridium paraperfringens (Alias: C. welchii), Clostridium paraputrificum, Clostridium pascui, Clostridium pasteurianum, Clostridium peptidivorans, Clostridium perenne, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium pfennigii, Clostridium phytofermentans, Clostridium piliforme, Clostridium polysaccharolyticum, Clostridium populeti, Clostridium propionicum, Clostridium proteoclasticum, Clostridium proteolyticum, Clostridium psychrophilum, Clostridium puniceum, Clostridium purinilyticum, Clostridium putrefaciens, Clostridium putrificum, Clostridium quercicolum, Clostridium quinii, Clostridium ramosum, Clostridium rectum, Clostridium roseum, Clostridium saccharobutylicum, Clostridium saccharogumia, Clostridium saccharolyticum, Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum, Clostridium sardiniense, Clostridium sartagoforme, Clostridium scatologenes, Clostridium schirmacherense, Clostridium scindens, Clostridium septicum, Clostridium sordellii, Clostridium sphenoides, Clostridium spiroforme, Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium sporosphaeroides, Clostridium stercorarium, Clostridium stercorarium leptospartum, Clostridium stercorarium stercorarium, Clostridium stercorarium thermolacticum, Clostridium sticklandii, Clostridium straminisolvens, Clostridium subterminale, Clostridium sufflavum, Clostridium sulfidigenes, Clostridium symbiosum, Clostridium tagluense, Clostridium tepidiprofundi, Clostridium termitidis, Clostridium tertium, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium tetanomorphum, Clostridium thermaceticum, Clostridium thermautotrophicum, Clostridium thermoalcaliphilum, Clostridium thermobutyricum, Clostridium thermocellum, Clostridium thermocopriae, Clostridium thermohydrosulfuricum, Clostridium thermolacticum, Clostridium thermopalmarium, Clostridium thermopapyrolyticum, Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum, Clostridium thermosuccinogenes, Clostridium thermosulfurigenes, Clostridium thiosulfatireducens, Clostridium tyrobutyricum, Clostridium uliginosum, Clostridium ultunense, Clostridium villosum, Clostridium vincentii, Clostridium viride, Clostridium xylanolyticum, Clostridium xylanovorans Dactylosporangium Deinococcus Delftia Echinicola Dactylosporangium aurantiacum Deinococcus aerius Delftia acidovorans Echinicola pacifica Dactylosporangium fulvum Deinococcus apachensis Desulfovibrio Echinicola vietnamensis Dactylosporangium matsuzakiense Deinococcus aquaticus Desulfovibrio desulfuricans Dactylosporangium roseum Deinococcus aquatilis Diplococcus Dactylosporangium thailandense Deinococcus caeni Diplococcus pneumoniae Dactylosporangium vinaceum Deinococcus radiodurans Deinococcus radiophilus Enterobacter Enterobacter kobei Faecalibacterium Flavobacterium E. aerogenes E. ludwigii Faecalibacterium prausnitzii Flavobacterium antarcticum E. amnigemis E. mori Fangia Flavobacterium aquatile E. agglomerans E. nimipressuralis Fangia hongkongensis Flavobacterium aquidurense E. arachidis E. oryzae Fastidiosipila Flavobacterium balustinum E. asburiae E. pulveris Fastidiosipila sanguinis Flavobacterium croceum E. cancerogenous E. pyrinus Fusobacterium Flavobacterium cucumis E. cloacae E. radicincitans Fusobacterium nucleatum Flavobacterium daejeonense E. cowanii E. taylorae Flavobacterium defluvii E. dissolvens E. turicensis Flavobacterium degerlachei E. gergoviae E. sakazakii Enterobacter soli Flavobacterium E. helveticus Enterococcus denitrificans E. hormaechei Enterococcus durans Flavobacterium filum E. intermedins Enterococcus faecalis Flavobacterium flevense Enterococcus faecium Flavobacterium frigidarium Erwinia Flavobacterium mizutaii Erwinia hapontici Flavobacterium Escherichia okeanokoites Escherichia coli Gaetbulibacter Haemophilus Ideonella Janibacter Gaetbulibacter saemankumensis Haemophilus aegyptius Ideonella azotifigens Janibacter anophelis Gallibacterium Haemophilus aphrophilus Idiomarina Janibacter corallicola Gallibacterium anatis Haemophilus felis Idiomarina abyssalis Janibacter limosus Gallicola Haemophilus gallinarum Idiomarina baltica Janibacter melonis Gallicola barnesae Haemophilus haemolyticus Idiomarina fontislapidosi Janibacter terrae Garciella Haemophilus influenzae Idiomarina loihiensis Jannaschia Garciella nitratireducens Haemophilus paracuniculus Idiomarina ramblicola Jannaschia cystaugens Geobacillus Haemophilus parahaemolyticus Idiomarina seosinensis Jannaschia helgolandensis Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius Haemophilus parainfluenzae Idiomarina zobellii Jannaschia Geobacillus stearothermophilus Haemophilus Ignatzschineria pohangensis Geobacter paraphrohaemolyticus Ignatzschineria Jannaschia rubra Geobacter bemidjiensis Haemophilus parasuis larvae Janthinobacterium Geobacter bremensis Haemophilus pittmaniae Ignavigranum Janthinobacterium Geobacter chapellei Hafnia Ignavigranum ruoffiae agaricidamnosum Geobacter grbiciae Hafnia alvei Ilumatobacter Janthinobacterium lividum Geobacter hydrogenophilus Hahella Ilumatobacter fluminis Jejuia Geobacter lovleyi Hahella ganghwensis Ilyobacter Jejuia pallidilutea Geobacter metallireducens Halalkalibacillus Ilyobacter delafieldii Jeotgalibacillus Geobacter pelophilus Halalkalibacillus halophilus Ilyobacter insuetus Jeotgalibacillus Geobacter pickeringii Helicobacter Ilyobacter polytropus alimentarius Geobacter sulfurreducens Helicobacter pylori Ilyobacter tartaricus Jeotgalicoccus Geodermatophilus Jeotgalicoccus halotolerans Geodermatophilus obscurus Gluconacetobacter Gluconacetobacter xylinus Gordonia Gordonia rubripertincta Kaistia Labedella Listeria ivanovii Micrococcus Nesterenkonia Kaistia adipata Labedella gwakjiensis L. marthii Micrococcus luteus Nesterenkonia holobia Kaistia soli Labrenzia L. monocytogenes Micrococcus lylae Nocardia Kangiella Labrenzia aggregata L. newyorkensis Moraxella Nocardia argentinensis Kangiella aquimarina Labrenzia alba L. riparia Moraxella bovis Nocardia corallina Kangiella Labrenzia alexandrii L. rocourtiae Moraxella nonliquefaciens Nocardia koreensis Labrenzia marina L. seeligeri Moraxella osloensis otitidiscaviarum Kerstersia Labrys L. weihenstephanensis Nakamurella Kerstersia gyiorum Labrys methylaminiphilus L. welshimeri Nakamurella multipartita Kiloniella Labrys miyagiensis Listonella Nannocystis Kiloniella laminariae Labrys monachus Listonella anguillarum Nannocystis pusilia Klebsiella Labrys okinawensis Macrococcus Natranaerobius K. gramilomatis Labrys Macrococcus bovicus Natranaerobius K. oxytoca portucalensis Marinobacter thermophilus K. pneumoniae Lactobacillus Marinobacter algicola Natranaerobius trueperi K. terrigena [see below] Marinobacter bryozoorum Naxibacter K. variicola Laceyella Marinobacter flavimaris Naxibacter alkalitolerans Kluyvera Laceyella putida Meiothermus Neisseria Kluyvera ascorbata Lechevalieria Meiothermus ruber Neisseria cinerea Kocuria Lechevalieria aerocolonigenes Methylophilus Neisseria denitrificans Kocuria roasea Legionella Methylophilus methylotrophus Neisseria gonorrhoeae Kocuria varians [see below] Microbacterium Neisseria lactamica Kurthia Listeria Microbacterium Neisseria mucosa Kurthia zopfii L. aquatica ammoniaphilum Neisseria sicca L. booriae Microbacterium arborescens Neisseria subflava L. cornellensis Microbacterium liquefaciens Neptunomonas L. fleischmannii Microbacterium oxydans Neptunomonas japonica L. floridensis L. grandensis L. grayi L. innocua Lactobacillus L. acetotolerans L. catenaformis L. mali L. parakefiri L. sakei L. acidifarinae L. ceti L. manihotivorans L. paralimentarius L. salivarius L. acidipiscis L. coleohominis L. mindensis L. paraplantarum L. sanfranciscensis L. acidophilus L. collinoides L. mucosae L. pentosus L. satsumensis Lactobacillus agilis L. composti L. murinus L. perolens L. secaliphilus L. algidus L. concavus L. nagelii L. plantarum L. sharpeae L. alimentarius L. coryniformis L. namurensis L. pontis L. siliginis L. amylolyticus L. crispatus L. nantensis L. protectus L. spicheri L. amylophilus L. crustorum L. oligofermentans L. psittaci L. suebicus L. amylotrophicus L. curvatus L. oris L. rennini L. thailandensis L. amylovorus L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus L. panis L. reuteri L. ultunensis L. animalis L. delbrueckii subsp. L. pantheris L. rhamnosus L. vaccinostercus L. antri delbrueckii L. parabrevis L. rimae L. vaginalis L. apodemi L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis L. parabuchneri L. rogosae L. versmoldensis L. aviarius L. dextrinicus L. paracasei L. rossiae L. vini L. bifermentans L. diolivorans L. paracollinoides L. ruminis L. vitulinus L. brevis L. equi L. parafarraginis L. saerimneri L. zeae L. buchneri L. equigenerosi L. homohiochii L. jensenii L. zymae L. camelliae L. farraginis L. iners L. johnsonii L. gastricus L. casei L. farciminis L. ingluviei L. kalixensis L. ghanensis L. kitasatonis L. fermentum L. intestinalis L. kefiranofaciens L. graminis L. kunkeei L. fornicalis L. fuchuensis L. kefiri L. hammesii L. leichmannii L. fructivorans L. gallinarum L. kimchii L. hamsteri L. lindneri L. frumenti L. gasseri L. helveticus L. harbinensis L. malefermentans L. hilgardii L. hayakitensis Legionella Legionella adelaidensis Legionella drancourtii Candidatus Legionella jeonii Legionella quinlivanii Legionella anisa Legionella dresdenensis Legionella jordanis Legionella rowbothamii Legionella beliardensis Legionella drozanskii Legionella lansingensis Legionella rubrilucens Legionella birminghamensis Legionella dumoffii Legionella londiniensis Legionella sainthelensi Legionella bozemanae Legionella erythra Legionella longbeachae Legionella santicrucis Legionella brunensis Legionella fairfieldensis Legionella lytica Legionella shakespearei Legionella busanensis Legionella fallonii Legionella maceachernii Legionella spiritensis Legionella cardiaca Legionella feeleii Legionella massiliensis Legionella steelei Legionella cherrii Legionella geestiana Legionella micdadei Legionella steigerwaltii Legionella cincinnatiensis Legionella genomospecies Legionella monrovica Legionella taurinensis Legionella clemsonensis Legionella gormanii Legionella moravica Legionella tucsonensis Legionella donaldsonii Legionella gratiana Legionella nagasakiensis Legionella tunisiensis Legionella gresilensis Legionella nautarum Legionella wadsworthii Legionella hackeliae Legionella norrlandica Legionella waltersii Legionella impletisoli Legionella oakridgensis Legionella worsleiensis Legionella israelensis Legionella parisiensis Legionella yabuuchiae Legionella jamestowniensis Legionella pittsburghensis Legionella pneumophila Legionella quateirensis Oceanibulbus Paenibacillus Prevotella Quadrisphaera Oceanibulbus indolifex Paenibacillus thiaminolyticus Prevotella albensis Quadrisphaera Oceanicaulis Pantoea Prevotella amnii granulorum Oceanicaulis alexandrii Pantoea Prevotella bergensis Quatrionicoccus Oceanicola agglomerans Prevotella bivia Quatrionicoccus Oceanicola batsensis Paracoccus Prevotella brevis australiensis Oceanicola granulosus Paracoccus alcaliphilus Prevotella bryantii Quinella Oceanicola nanhaiensis Paucimonas Prevotella buccae Quinella Oceanimonas Paucimonas lemoignei Prevotella buccalis ovalis Oceanimonas baumannii Pectobacterium Prevotella copri Ralstonia Oceaniserpentilla Pectobacterium aroidearum Prevotella dentalis Ralstonia eutropha Oceaniserpentilla haliotis Pectobacterium atrosepticum Prevotella denticola Ralstonia insidiosa Oceanisphaera Pectobacterium betavasculorum Prevotella disiens Ralstonia mannitolilytica Oceanisphaera donghaensis Pectobacterium cacticida Prevotella histicola Ralstonia pickettii Oceanisphaera litoralis Pectobacterium carnegieana Prevotella intermedia Ralstonia Oceanithermus Pectobacterium carotovorum Prevotella maculosa pseudosolanacearum Oceanithermus desulfurans Pectobacterium chrysanthemi Prevotella marshii Ralstonia syzygii Oceanithermus profundus Pectobacterium cypripedii Prevotella melaninogenica Ralstonia solanacearum Oceanobacillus Pectobacterium rhapontici Prevotella micans Ramlibacter Oceanobacillus caeni Pectobacterium wasabiae Prevotella multiformis Ramlibacter henchirensis Oceanospirillum Planococcus Prevotella nigrescens Ramlibacter Oceanospirillum linum Planococcus citreus Prevotella oralis tataouinensis Planomicrobium Prevotella oris Raoultella Planomicrobium okeanokoites Prevotella oulorum Raoultella ornithinolytica Plesiomonas Prevotella pallens Raoultella planticola Plesiomonas shigelloides Prevotella salivae Raoultella terrigena Proteus Prevotella stercorea Rathayibacter Proteus vulgaris Prevotella tannerae Rathayibacter caricis Prevotella timonensis Rathayibacter festucae Prevotella veroralis Rathayibacter iranicus Providencia Rathayibacter rathayi Providencia stuartii Rathayibacter toxicus Pseudomonas Rathayibacter tritici Pseudomonas aeruginosa Rhodobacter Pseudomonas alcaligenes Rhodobacter sphaeroides Pseudomonas anguillispetica Ruegeria Pseudomonas fluorescens Ruegeria gelatinovorans Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis Pseudomonas mendocina Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes Pseudomonas putida Pseudomonas tutzeri Pseudomonas syringae Psychrobacter Psychrobacter faecalis Psychrobacter phenylpyruvicus Saccharococcus Sagittula Sanguibacter Stenotrophomonas Tatlockia Saccharococcus thermophilus Sagittula stellata Sanguibacter keddieii Stenotrophomonas Tatlockia maceachernii Saccharomonospora Salegentibacter Sanguibacter suarezii maltophilia Tatlockia micdadei Saccharomonospora azurea Salegentibacter salegens Saprospira Streptococcus Tenacibaculum Saccharomonospora cyanea Salimicrobium Saprospira grandis [also see below] Tenacibaculum Saccharomonospora viridis Salimicrobium album Sarcina Streptomyces amylolyticum Saccharophagus Salinibacter Sarcina maxima Streptomyces Tenacibaculum discolor Saccharophagus degradans Salinibacter ruber Sarcina ventriculi achromogenes Tenacibaculum Saccharopolyspora Salinicoccus Sebaldella Streptomyces gallaicum Saccharopolyspora erythraea Salinicoccus alkaliphilus Sebaldella cesalbus Tenacibaculum Saccharopolyspora gregorii Salinicoccus hispanicus termitidis Streptomyces cescaepitosus lutimaris Saccharopolyspora hirsuta Salinicoccus roseus Serratia Streptomyces cesdiastaticus Tenacibaculum Saccharopolyspora hordei Salinispora Serratia fonticola Streptomyces cesexfoliatus mesophilum Saccharopolyspora rectivirgula Salinispora arenicola Serratia marcescens Streptomyces fimbriatus Tenacibaculum Saccharopolyspora spinosa Salinispora tropica Sphaerotilus Streptomyces fradiae skagerrakense Saccharopolyspora taberi Salinivibrio Sphaerotilus natans Streptomyces fulvissimus Tepidanaerobacter Saccharothrix Salinivibrio costicola Sphingobacterium Streptomyces griseoruber Tepidanaerobacter Saccharothrix australiensis Salmonella Sphingobacterium multivorum Streptomyces griseus syntrophicus Saccharothrix coeruleofusca Salmonella bongori Staphylococcus Streptomyces lavendulae Tepidibacter Saccharothrix espanaensis Salmonella enterica [see below] Streptomyces Tepidibacter Saccharothrix longispora Salmonella subterranea phaeochromogenes formicigenes Saccharothrix mutabilis Salmonella typhi Streptomyces Tepidibacter thalassicus Saccharothrix syringae thermodiastaticus Thermus Saccharothrix tangerinus Streptomyces tubercidicus Thermus aquaticus Saccharothrix texasensis Thermus filiformis Thermus thermophilus Staphylococcus S. arlettae S. equorum S. microti S. schleiferi S. agnetis S. felis S. muscae S. sciuri S. aureus S. fleurettii S. nepalensis S. simiae S. auricularis S. gallinarum S. pasteuri S. simulans S. capitis S. haemolyticus S. petrasii S. stepanovicii S. caprae S. hominis S. pettenkoferi S. succinus S. carnosus S. hyicus S. piscifermentans S. vitulinus S. caseolyticus S. intermedius S. pseudintermedius S. warneri S. chromogenes S. kloosii S. pseudolugdunensis S. xylosus S. cohnii S. leei S. pulvereri S. condimenti S. lentus S. rostri S. delphini S. lugdunensis S. saccharolyticus S. devriesei S. lutrae S. saprophyticus S. epidermidis S. lyticans S. massiliensis Streptococcus Streptococcus agalactiae Streptococcus infantarius Streptococcus orisratti Streptococcus thermophilus Streptococcus anginosus Streptococcus iniae Streptococcus parasanguinis Streptococcus sanguinis Streptococcus bovis Streptococcus intermedius Streptococcus peroris Streptococcus sobrinus Streptococcus canis Streptococcus lactarius Streptococcus pneumoniae Streptococcus suis Streptococcus constellatus Streptococcus milleri Streptococcus Streptococcus uberis Streptococcus downei Streptococcus mitis pseudopneumoniae Streptococcus vestibularis Streptococcus dysgalactiae Streptococcus mutans Streptococcus pyogenes Streptococcus viridans Streptococcus equines Streptococcus oralis Streptococcus ratti Streptococcus Streptococcus faecalis Streptococcus tigurinus Streptococcus salivariu zooepidemicus Streptococcus ferus Uliginosibacterium Vagococcus Vibrio Virgibacillus Xanthobacter Uliginosibacterium Vagococcus carniphilus Vibrio aerogenes Virgibacillus Xanthobacter agilis gangwonense Vagococcus elongatus Vibrio aestuarianus halodenitrificans Xanthobacter Ulvibacter Vagococcus fessus Vibrio albensis Virgibacillus aminoxidans Ulvibacter litoralis Vagococcus fluvialis Vibrio alginolyticus pantothenticus Xanthobacter Umezawaea Vagococcus lutrae Vibrio campbellii Weissella autotrophicus Umezawaea tangerina Vagococcus salmoninarum Vibrio cholerae Weissella cibaria Xanthobacter flavus Undibacterium Variovorax Vibrio cincinnatiensis Weissella confusa Xanthobacter tagetidis Undibacterium pigrum Variovorax boronicumulans Vibrio coralliilyticus Weissella halotolerans Xanthobacter viscosus Ureaplasma Variovorax dokdonensis Vibrio cyclitrophicus Weissella hellenica Xanthomonas Ureaplasma Variovorax paradoxus Vibrio diazotrophicus Weissella kandleri Xanthomonas urealyticum Variovorax soli Vibrio fluvialis Weissella koreensis albilineans Ureibacillus Veillonella Vibrio furnissii Weissella minor Xanthomonas alfalfae Ureibacillus composti Veillonella atypica Vibrio gazogenes Weissella Xanthomonas Ureibacillus suwonensis Veillonella caviae Vibrio halioticoli paramesenteroides arboricola Ureibacillus terrenus Veillonella criceti Vibrio harveyi Weissella soli Xanthomonas Ureibacillus thermophilus Veillonella dispar Vibrio ichthyoenteri Weissella thailandensis axonopodis Ureibacillus thermosphaericus Veillonella montpellierensis Vibrio mediterranei Weissella viridescens Xanthomonas Veillonella parvula Vibrio metschnikovii Williamsia campestris Veillonella ratti Vibrio mytili Williamsia marianensis Xanthomonas citri Veillonella rodentium Vibrio natriegens Williamsia maris Xanthomonas codiaei Venenivibrio Vibrio navarrensis Williamsia serinedens Xanthomonas Venenivibrio stagnispumantis Vibrio nereis Winogradskyella cucurbitae Verminephrobacter Vibrio nigripulchritudo Winogradskyella Xanthomonas Verminephrobacter eiseniae Vibrio ordalii thalassocola euvesicatoria Verrucomicrobium Vibrio orientalis Wolbachia Xanthomonas fragariae Verrucomicrobium spinosum Vibrio parahaemolyticus Wolbachia persica Xanthomonas fuscans Vibrio pectenicida Wolinella Xanthomonas gardneri Vibrio penaeicida Wolinella succinogenes Xanthomonas hortorum Vibrio proteolyticus Zobellia Xanthomonas hyacinthi Vibrio shilonii Zobellia galactanivorans Xanthomonas perforans Vibrio splendidus Zobellia uliginosa Xanthomonas phaseoli Vibrio tubiashii Zoogloea Xanthomonas pisi Vibrio vulnificus Zoogloea ramigera Xanthomonas populi Zoogloea resiniphila Xanthomonas theicola Xanthomonas translucens Xanthomonas vesicatoria Xylella Xylella fastidiosa Xylophilus Xylophilus ampelinus Xenophilus Yangia Yersinia mollaretii Zooshikella Zobellella Xenophilus azovorans Yangia pacifica Yersinia philomiragia Zooshikella ganghwensis Zobellella denitrificans Xenorhabdus Yaniella Yersinia pestis Zunongwangia Zobellella taiwanensis Xenorhabdus beddingii Yaniella flava Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Zunongwangia profunda Zeaxanthinibacter Xenorhabdus bovienii Yaniella halotolerans Yersinia rohdei Zymobacter Zeaxanthinibacter Xenorhabdus cabanillasii Yeosuana Yersinia ruckeri Zymobacter palmae enoshimensis Xenorhabdus doucetiae Yeosuana aromativorans Yokenella Zymomonas Zhihengliuella Xenorhabdus griffiniae Yersinia Yokenella regensburgei Zymomonas mobilis Zhihengliuella Xenorhabdus hominickii Yersinia aldovae Yonghaparkia Zymophilus halotolerans Xenorhabdus koppenhoeferi Yersinia bercovieri Yonghaparkia alkaliphila Zymophilus paucivorans Xylanibacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila Yersinia enterocolitica Zavarzinia Zymophilus raffinosivorans Xylanibacterium ulmi Xenorhabdus poinarii Yersinia entomophaga Zavarzinia compransoris Xylanibacter Yersinia frederiksenii Xylanibacter oryzae Yersinia intermedia Yersinia kristensenii

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1. A method of producing a population of phages, wherein the phages are of a first type capable of infecting host cells of a first bacterial species or strain by binding a cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said first species or strain, the method comprising (a) Providing a population of second bacterial cells comprising the receptor on the surface of the second cells, wherein the second cells are of a second species or strain, wherein the second species or strain is different from the first species or strain; (b) Infecting the second cells with phages of said first type; and (c) Propagating the phages in the second cells, thereby producing the population of phages.
 2. A method of producing a population of transduction particles comprising nucleic acid packaged by phage coat proteins, wherein the particles are capable of infecting host cells of a first bacterial species or strain by binding a cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said first species or strain, whereby host cells are transduced with the nucleic acid, the method comprising (a) Providing a population of second bacterial cells comprising the receptor on the surface of the second cells, wherein the second cells are of a second species or strain, wherein the second species or strain is different from the first species or strain, and wherein the second cells comprise DNA that is capable of producing copies of said nucleic acid; (b) Infecting the second cells with phage encoding the phage coat proteins by binding the phage to the receptor comprised by the second bacterial cells; and (c) Propagating the phage in the second cells, wherein phage coat proteins are produced that package copies of said nucleic acid, thereby producing the population of particles.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the particles are non-replicative transduction particles or phages.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the phage or particles comprise a nucleotide sequence encoding crRNAs that are operable with Cas in bacteria of said host cell strain or species to form an active CRISPR/Cas system that is capable of targeting one or more protospacer nucleotide sequences, wherein each target sequence is comprised by the genome of said host cells, whereby the crRNAs guide Cas in host cells to modify the target sequence, thereby killing host cells or reducing host cell population growth.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein when infected by the phage, the second cells do not comprise said active CRISPR/Cas system.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the genome of each second bacterial cell does not comprise a said target sequence.
 7. The method of claim 4, wherein (a) Cas of said second cells is not operable with said crRNAs; (b) tracrRNA of said second cells is not operable with said crRNAs; and/or (c) said second cells are not operable to produce said crRNAs from said crRNA-encoding nucleotide sequence.
 8. The method of claim 4, wherein the crRNAs comprise repeat sequences that are not operable with Cas of the second cells.
 9. The method of claim 4, wherein said nucleotide sequence is operably connected with a promoter for transcription of crRNAs in bacteria of said host species or strain, but not in said second species or strain.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein (a) the phage comprise a nucleotide sequence encoding crRNAs that are operable with Cas in bacteria of said host cell strain or species to form an active CRISPR/Cas system that is capable of targeting one or more protospacer nucleotide sequences, wherein each target sequence is comprised by the genome of said host cells, whereby the crRNAs guide Cas in host cells to modify the target sequence, thereby killing host cells or reducing host cell population growth; (b) the host cells and the second cells are of the same species; and (c) the genome of each second bacterial cell does not comprise a said target sequence, wherein the first and second cells are different strains of the same species.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein bacteria of said host species or strain comprise an anti-phage toxin or mechanism for killing or reducing the propagation of phages of said first type that infect host bacteria, wherein the second bacteria do not comprise said toxin or mechanism.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein bacteria of said host species or strain comprise a CRISPR/Cas system that is active for killing or reducing the propagation of phages of said first type that infect host bacteria, wherein the second bacteria do not comprise said CRISPR/Cas system.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the second bacterial cells are engineered to produce the receptor, wherein wild-type bacteria of said second species or strain do not produce said receptor.
 14. (canceled)
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the second cells are Escherichia coli cells.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the first cells and the second cells are of the same species.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the strain of host cells is a human pathogenic strain and the second cell strain is not a human pathogenic strain.
 18. (canceled)
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the receptor is selected from lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids, proteins and flagella.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the receptor comprises an O-antigen of the host cells.
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein the phage or particles are operable to express an endolysin or holin in the second cells.
 22. A propagator cell for propagating phage or transduction particles comprising nucleic acid packaged by phage coat proteins, wherein the phage or particles are of a first type capable of infecting host cells of a first bacterial species or strain by binding a cell-surface receptor comprised by bacteria of said first species or strain, the propagator cell comprising the receptor on the surface thereof, wherein the propagator cell is of a second species or strain, wherein the second species or strain is different from the first species or strain, whereby the propagator cell is capable of being infected by phage of said first type or said particles for propagation of phage or particles respectively therein. 23-34. (canceled)
 35. A method of treating or preventing a disease or condition in a human or animal subject, the disease or condition being mediated by host cells comprised by the subject, the method comprising administering propagator cells of claim 22 to the subject, wherein the propagator cells produce phage or transduction particles and the phage or particles infect host cells in the subject, thereby killing host cells or inhibiting growth or proliferation of host cells in the subject, whereby the disease or condition is treated or prevented. 36-37. (cancelled)
 38. The method of claim 19, wherein the receptor comprises a teichoic acid moiety that is the product of the action of one or more enzymes in the second cell, wherein the genome of the second cell comprises one or more expressible nucleotide sequences encoding said one or more enzymes, wherein wild-type cells of the second species or strain do not comprise said expressible nucleotide sequences.
 39. The method of claim 20, wherein the enzymes are selected from TarO, TarA, TarB, TarF, TarK, and TarL. 